Publications
“Forest of Andasibe National Park, Madagascar”
by Gregoire Dubois, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
This page provides information and links to select peer-reviewed publications supported by FLARE and by FLARE research associates, including current and former students, post-docs, coordinators, and others.
2026
Adeyanju, S., Ros-Tonen, M. A. F., Bulkan, J., Baatuuwie, B. N., & Sunderland, T. (2026). Evaluating socioeconomic and equity outcomes in livelihood interventions: Insights from Community Resource Management Areas (CREMAs) in northern Ghana. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability, 11, 100337.
Abstract
Over the past 25 years, Ghana's Community Resource Management Area (CREMA) program has expanded to cover 2 million hectares across 600 communities, aiming to achieve its dual objectives of biodiversity conservation and poverty reduction. As Ghana's flagship Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) initiative, it has attracted significant investment from international organizations for livelihood interventions to reduce poverty and incentivize conservation. Yet little is known about how these interventions are implemented or who benefits. Using qualitative methods, this study examines stakeholders' perceptions of the types, socioeconomic impacts, and equity dynamics of livelihood interventions in three CREMAs in northern Ghana. Our findings reveal that interventions that enhance existing livelihoods, such as modern beekeeping, remain the most frequently implemented. Although the socioeconomic impacts of these interventions vary across and within CREMAs, they provide individuals with modest, seasonal income and support community development projects. The gender dimensions of the interventions show that gender-targeted, pro-poor distribution norms have increased women's inclusion and access to cash income but also raise concerns about exclusion and intersectional inequities. By situating our findings within debates on distributional and contextual equity, we offer insights into how pro-poor norms interact with gender and other contextual factors to shape economic and equity outcomes in incentive-based conservation. This article is relevant beyond the case study, as it can inform the design of equitable, context-sensitive, and sustainable livelihood interventions in current and future incentive-based conservation efforts across the tropics and beyond. • Livelihood interventions in CREMAs mainly strengthen existing livelihoods like beekeeping. • These interventions provide modest seasonal income and support community development. • Benefits are unequally shared across CREMAs and between men and women. • Gender-targeted, pro-poor distribution norms improve women's inclusion and access to cash income. • Distributional norms and context may contribute to exclusion and intersectional inequities.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2026.100337
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Ahammad, R., Tomscha, S. A., Baudron, F., Eddy, I. M. S., Fromstein, M., Gergel, S. E., Abdoulaye, R., Asaha, S., Duriaux-Chavarría, J. Y., Foli, S., Gumbo, D., Mumba, K. Y., Leonald, L., Rowland, D., van Vianen, J., & Sunderland, T. C. H. (2026). Forest visitation and utilization along agricultural intensification gradients. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 8.
Abstract
Introduction Forests support crucial ecosystem services globally, and contribute to the livelihoods of millions of people, but are threatened by agricultural expansion and intensification. Yet the relationship between forest cover and agricultural intensification, and how it mediates people’s access to and use of resources has been seldom studied globally. Methods Using remote sensing imagery and household surveys, we analyzed the effects of forest cover change on forest access (visitation) and household use of resources along a gradient from lower to higher land use intensification across seven tropical landscapes in low and middle income countries. Results We find that increased agricultural intensification lowered forest visitation in the high intensification zone compared to the low to medium intensification zones. Forest types and changes, such as stable forests, forest gains and edge density, positively impacted household use of forest-sourced food and construction materials and visitation, highlighting the importance of sustainable forest management. Discussion Our results complement the evidence of forest cover change by looking at agricultural intensification zones, which reveal the site-specific trends of forest types, ownership and household demand for ecosystem services. We recommend integrated landscape approaches with context and site-specific solutions to address the variability of forest types and multiple management goals that can be achieved with agricultural production and equitable access to provisioning goods and services in complex multi-functional landscapes.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1646882
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Amadu, F. O., Ahuja, V. K., & Krah, K. (2026). Machine Learning Insights on Agroforestry Adoption in Southern Malawi. SSRN Electronic Journal.
Abstract
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an increasingly important climate action in building resilience to extreme weather shocks and enhancing sustainable development goals, such as food security and poverty reduction. Thus, increasing CSA adoption is a top international development priority. However, adoption remains low in developing countries due to resource constraints such as land, labor, and capital. Can machine learning and econometric techniques combine to explain CSA adoption? We respond to this question by applying supervised machine learning techniques (including Decision Tree, Probit, and Random Forest) along with a control function econometric approach to predict CSA adoption in southern Malawi using agroforestry fertilizer trees (Faidherbia albida) as a proxy for CSA. We utilize primary survey data from 808 households in a CSA-related intervention area across southern Malawi, where a bundle of CSA practices was promoted from 2009 to 2014 by Catholic Relief Services in Malawi. Our approach accounts for the endogeneity of CSA program participation and selection bias associated with CSA adoption. We found that machine learning models accurately predicted agroforestry adoption by 64%, 62%, and 61%, respectively, while the econometric model predicted adoption by 33%. Our results suggest that machine learning models can provide superior predictability of CSA adoption compared to standard econometric approaches. The findings provide an important first step in comparing the predictive power of artificial intelligence to enhance CSA adoption and thereby contribute to environmental development outcomes in rural areas of Malawi and similar contexts elsewhere
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.6832649
FLARE author(s): Festus Amadu
Anugwa, I. Q., Agwu, A. E., Amadu, F., Ume, C., & Ngidi, M. (2026). Intra-household gender differences in climate change perception and agricultural adaptation: evidence from Anambra state, Nigeria. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 10.
Abstract
Introduction In this article, we examine the influence of gender-based differences in perceptions of climate change on the uptake of agricultural adaptation practices at the intra-household level. Existing studies on climate change adaptation largely compare male- and female-headed households, overlooking intra-household dynamics and failing to explicitly model the relationship between gender-differentiated perceptions of climate change and the uptake of specific adaptation practices within shared farming systems. Methods We focus on six practices—mulching, mounds and ridges, early planting, multiple cropping, drought-resistant crops, and disease-resistant varieties—and apply multivariate probit regression analysis to survey data from 286 spousal pairs across 12 rural communities in Anambra State, Nigeria. Findings We find significant gender disparities in perceptions of climate change, particularly regarding prolonged flooding, with husbands reporting higher perceptions than their wives. Wives’ perceptions significantly enhanced the uptake of mounds and ridges, mulching, early planting, and multiple cropping, while husbands’ perceptions primarily influenced the uptake of mulching and early planting practices. Various factors, including age, membership in social groups, and educational attainment, positively influenced both spouses’ uptake of different agricultural adaptation practices. We also find positive correlations between specific adaptation measures adopted by spouses, with husbands more likely to combine drought-resistant crops and mounds and ridges, while wives tend to pair drought-resistant and disease-resistant crops. Discussion These findings underscore the importance of enhancing gender-responsive adaptation policies to strengthen climate resilience. Leveraging the diverse perspectives, adaptation measures, and needs of both men and women in agricultural households can lead to more robust gender-sensitive climate information services and needs-based adaptation strategies in vulnerable regions.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2026.1851078
FLARE author(s): Festus Amadu
Arya, V., Balutia, A., Chhatre, A., & Narain, N. (2026). Pathways to Rural Prosperity. Routledge.
Abstract
India's rural transformation journey has been remarkable – characterised by innovation, community resilience, strategic interventions, and continuous learning from both successes and challenges. Delving into India's rural livelihood, this volume presents learnings from livelihood interventions across the country. Through the authors’ on-field experiences and case studies, the book documents the evolution of flagship programmes like the National Rural Livelihood Mission, showcasing how decentralised approaches and collective action have fostered sustainable changes within India’s most vulnerable populations. Whether it is about graduating tribal communities from extreme poverty to creating women-led enterprises, or introducing watershed management and climate-resilient farming, this book captures diverse strategies that have proven effective in different contexts. Each chapter reveals implementation challenges, success factors, and scalable solutions, demonstrating how government programmes, partnerships, and community ownership create widespread impact far beyond individual beneficiaries. It highlights the critical role of women's collectives, place-based approaches, and the potential of ecological livelihoods in building sustainable rural economies, offering a roadmap for replicating successful interventions adaptable to local contexts and emerging challenges. Part of the “Innovations, Practice and the Future of Public Policy in India” series, this open-access volume is an evidence-based compilation which will be an essential resource for policymakers, development practitioners, researchers, and students seeking to understand effective rural development strategies and working on global development, development policy, rural development, public policy, and social policy.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003730804
FLARE author(s): Ashwini Chhatre
Barragan Contreras, S. J., Abdulai, A.-G., Abdul Kadir, S., Aguiar Gomes, C. V., Alencar, L., Banegas González, I. M., Che Piu, H., Devenish, K., Enns, C., Frederiksen, T., Fynn, I. E. M., Hidayat, Y., Hernández Montilla, M. C., Izquierdo Tort, S., Lo, M. G. Y., García Prado, G. A., Nofyanza, S., Kabutey Ongor, M., Khuu, D. T., .. Oldekop, J. A. (2026). An Action-Oriented Research Agenda for Forests and Just Transitions. SocArXiv (OSF Preprints).
Abstract
Forests are highly contested spaces where the rights and needs of land-connected communities are increasingly in tension with rapidly expanding decarbonisation agendas in response to climate change concerns, including those pushing for renewable energy development, mining for energy transition minerals, and carbon offsetting projects. Gaining a better understanding of these agendas and the conditions under which they pose challenges or opportunities for land-connected peoples is essential to inform more just and inclusive energy pathways to low-carbon futures. Here, we present a novel research agenda for just energy transitions in forest landscapes. The agenda was co-produced by civil society organisations, activists, practitioners, and academics based in seven countries in Latin America, Europe, Africa, and Asia. Our agenda is centred around 25 research questions identified through an iterative Delphi process. Our questions cluster around five central themes: (1) collective rights and knowledge systems of land-connected peoples; (2) domestic governance, institutions and accountability (3) community agency, innovation, and local economies; (4) geopolitical context and structural inequalities; and (5) forest and land-connected peoples’ wellbeing trade-offs. Our agenda reflects the knowledge needs of various stakeholders working at the frontlines of decarbonisation processes in forest contexts and provides novel points of entry for enquiry and action to advance a more just and equitable understanding of decarbonisation processes and their implications for forests and land-connected peoples.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/f23w8_v1
FLARE author(s): Johan Oldekop
Budhathoki, K., Bhattarai, B., Dahal, B. M., Dhyani, S., Gautam, A. P., Guragain, B., Gurung, D. D., Ismail, M., Katel, O., Khaling, S., Marquardt, K., Müller-Böker, U., Nautiyal, H., Ojha, R. B., Oldekop, J. A., Pasakhala, B., Poudyal, B. H., Ranabhat, S., Rigg, J., .. Webb, E. L. (2026). The emerging and escalating consequences of rural depopulation in the Himalaya. Global Environmental Change, 98, 103164.
Abstract
The Himalayan region, home to fifty million inhabitants and sustaining more than one billion, is experiencing mass rural depopulation and agrarian transition, the consequences of which are complex, varied, and still nascent. We convened a panel of 34 experts from various fields of socio-environmental sciences working in the Himalaya to conduct a horizon scan to identify escalating and emerging issues arising from rural depopulation over the next 10–15 years. The panel identified a total of 22 issues. We then integrated systems thinking to map the linkages among the issues in a causal network, illuminating the cascading impacts arising from rural depopulation. Through the novel combination of methods, key issues (nodes in the causal network) were identified; these included escalating issues of farmland abandonment, vegetation succession, and rural livelihood resilience. Consequential emergence of threats and prospects to mountain society, natural resources, and political economy were identified. The identification of key nodes and emergent outcomes (or drivers) and consideration of their cascading effects provide avenues for developing targeted policies to mitigate the negative and support the positive outcomes (or drivers). Application and inquiry of the causal network suggested a strong need for policy makers to consider multiple dimensions when addressing complex and contextual issues. The novel approach combining horizon scanning and causal network analysis advances proactive policy discourse and prioritizes future research needs for rural depopulation outcomes in the Himalaya. Both the methods and the issues raised by rural depopulation in mountain environments are relevant for other regions and socio-ecological processes.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2026.103164
FLARE author(s): Johan Oldekop
Carmenta, R., Anderson, L., Armijos, M. T., Lugo, V., Marsh, H., Ulfe Young, M. E., & Few, R. (2026). Global Framings of Pandemic Recovery: Insights Across Conservation, Development and Health Fields. The Journal of Environment & Development, 35(2), 573-606.
Abstract
In many contexts recovery from COVID-19 is ongoing. The impacts of the pandemic were diverse and their distribution uneven, which may in part explain the diversity in the ways in which its recovery has been framed. Numerous framings concerning what constitutes ‘recovery’, what its pursuit should entail, who (or what) it should target and whose vision the notion of recovery should represent have been expressed by various fields of study. An assessment of the way in which diverse fields (e.g. health, conservation and development) have represented the priorities of recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic is so far not available. This knowledge gap is important since understanding the threads in common, and those distinct between fields, may help move towards a more integrated appraisal of the multiple priorities salient to recovery. Integration however also involves representing diverse knowledges, values and lived experiences and supporting disaster-resilient communities requires being attentive to the voices of the most marginalized. Due recognition of and engagement with these groups is essential for enhancing the justice and equity of recovery-focused interventions, and can help ensure that interventions do not presume, misplace or misrepresent local priorities. With growing recognition of the need for decolonial, grounded and co-developed responses to processes of recovery, nature futures and global development there is a need to understand how COVID-19 recovery has been conceived and articulated across fields, and crucially, the extent to which it has included the perceptions of socially, economically and politically marginalized groups. We analyzed 30 papers (10 per field), and asked (1) How does COVID-19 recovery tend to be framed within these fields, including the representation of intersecting risks? (2) Where is there divergence and congruence in recovery discourses across these fields, and what would an integrated understanding of recovery look like? (3) To what extent are local voices reflected or acknowledged in these international framings? We found that while perspectives differed, all highlighted how COVID-19 exposed pre-existing interconnected crises. Many framed the root cause as flawed economic growth models, which was considered in need of various degrees of transformation combined with more integrated governance. Crucially, few framings had strong representation of local, or marginalized voices and relatively few papers actively grounded their calls, or prominently advocated for such practices. Our findings point to a need for more co-created knowledge generation and agenda setting for COVID-19 recovery, and disaster recovery more broadly.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1177/10704965251407170
FLARE author(s): Rachel Carmenta
Castle, S. E., Newton, P., Oldekop, J. A., Baylis, K., & Miller, D. C. (2026). Global forest dataset incongruence creates high uncertainties for conservation, climate, and development policy. One Earth, 9(2), 101558.
Abstract
Forests are central to climate, biodiversity, and development goals, but effective monitoring and evaluation of their contributions depends on reliable data. Satellite-derived global forest cover and change datasets (GFDs) are widely used to address this need. However, differences in resolution, forest definition, and methodology challenge their use in research and policy, yet how GFD differences affect key forest-related estimates remains poorly understood. Here, we quantify global area-based spatial congruence among 10 GFDs and test their influence on three national policy-relevant estimates: carbon accounting, forest-poverty mapping, and biodiversity habitat. We find only 26% spatial congruence among GFDs at native resolution. This low congruence translates to an order-of-magnitude difference in national case study indicator estimates. We demonstrate that GFD selection fundamentally shapes monitoring and evaluation outcomes, particularly in biomes with fragmented or sparse tree cover. We provide a decision-support framework to guide GFD selection according to different forest-related science and policy applications.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2025.101558
FLARE author(s): Daniel Miller, Johan Oldekop, Peter Newton, Sarah Castle
Castro, M., Ritonga, R., Masuda, Y., Asyhari, A., Novita, N., Gangga, A., Erbaugh, J., Cheptoo, G., Yeo, S., & Leavitt, S. (2026). Effective restoration can avoid peatland fires: Large scale counterfactual assessment in Kalimantan, Indonesia. iScience, 29(6), 116041.
Abstract
Peatland fires are the third largest source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Indonesia, a country that stores over half of the world's tropical peatland carbon. These fires cause significant economic losses to human health, crops, and forests. After the devastating 2015 fires, the Government of Indonesia and several partners initiated large scale restoration efforts via peat rewetting with canal blocks. We report on a statistical counterfactual evaluation of peat rewetting on fire occurrence in peatlands in West and Central Kalimantan from 2017 to 2022. We find heterogeneous impacts of rewetting: canal blocks with overlapping rewetted areas were the most effective for avoiding fires. If all canal blocks were effective, rewetting could avoid up to 6.4% of the burnt area, reduce 0.4 MtCO2e emissions, and deliver economic returns of more than a 100% in 10 years in the best performing locations.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2026.116041
FLARE author(s): J.T. Erbaugh
Cogburn, S., Amadu, F. O., Adhikari, P. L., & Rosen, B. H. (2026). Agricultural ‘best management practices’ and ecosystem resilience in a decade of sustainability action: are current policy impact evaluations effective?. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 79, 101619.
Abstract
Agricultural best management practices (BMPs) can enhance sustainable agriculture, environmental conservation, and ecosystem resilience. Agricultural BMPs can reduce nutrient runoffs, such as nitrogen and phosphorus from farms into waterbodies, decrease nutrient impairment in watersheds, and thereby improve water quality. Such outcomes are vital in watersheds facing high nutrient loads, water pollution, and environmental decline. Thus, environmental policies have promoted agricultural BMPs to enhance sustainable food production and resilient ecosystems, a win-win for both producers and consumers of agricultural products and ecosystem services. However, the question of whether existing agricultural BMP evaluation approaches effectively showcase their impacts on sustainable ecosystem services remains unexamined. Therefore, we seek to address this gap by reviewing findings from relevant peer-reviewed journal articles to assess how robust their analyses are regarding the effectiveness of agricultural BMPs implementation policies for ecosystem resilience. We used the context of Lake Okeechobee in Florida, USA (one of the largest and most polluted lakes in the world), as a case study. Results indicate that most studies do not employ rigorous policy impact evaluation techniques such as randomized control trials, difference-in-difference methods, spatial econometrics, and instrumental variable approaches to explicitly measure the impacts of agricultural BMP application on ecosystem health. We believe that employing effective policy impact evaluation methods is essential for accurately assessing the environmental effectiveness of agricultural BMPs and for guiding sustainable policies for achieving sustainability outcomes across different contexts. This review can support ecological sustainability and contributes to achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs), especially SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), SDG 14 (life below water), and SDG 15 (life on land) worldwide.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2026.101619
FLARE author(s): Festus Amadu
Diem, J. E., Bailey, K., Muleme, J., Ramprasad, V., Sullivan, K., Hartter, J., Mutegeki, R., Venier, M., Rothman, J. M., Namusisi, S., & Wasserman, M. D. (2026). Pesticide use and climate-driven pest pressure in smallholder agriculture in equatorial Africa. Journal of Environmental Management, 401, 128999.
Abstract
Despite extensive research on agriculture and climate in equatorial Africa, few studies integrate hydroclimate change with land use, crop vulnerability, pest and pathogen pressures, and the increasing dependence on pesticides in smallholder systems. Therefore, this study evaluated how changing hydroclimate conditions may influence pesticide use in smallholder landscapes surrounding a forested national park in western Uganda. Recent and projected trends in temperature, precipitation, and soil-water availability were used to assess future crop suitability and pest and pathogen impacts on major crops, while interviews with local stakeholders provided insight into the extent and risks of current pesticide use. Results showed that warming and wetting trends over the past several decades are expected to continue until at least mid-century. The current warming and wetting trends may strengthen and weaken, respectively, in the future. Despite the changing climate, temperatures and soil-water availability of the region as a whole should remain suitable for the current suite of crops grown there. Unfortunately, the combined effects of changing hydroclimate variables are likely to increase pest and pathogen pressure on crops. Interviews indicated that pesticide use is widespread and increasing, driven by pest outbreaks, labor constraints, and market pressures, with misuse, low adoption of protective equipment, limited extension support, and health and environmental impacts. Therefore, pesticide use is expected to increase further in upcoming decades, posing growing risks to farmer health, wetlands, and wildlife. Sustainable pest-management strategies, exemplified by integrated pest management, together with improved extension services, will be essential to reduce chemical exposure while maintaining yields. • There are current and projected warming and wetting trends in the Kibale region. • Increasing temperature and precipitation likely intensify pest and pathogen pressure. • Pesticide use is widespread and poorly regulated, increasing environmental risk. • Pesticide use is expected to rise with increasing pest pressure and land intensification. • Expanding integrated pest management can reduce chemical use and environmental risk.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2026.128999
FLARE author(s): Karen Bailey
Dolman, M. R., Short, K. C., Brandt, J. S., Finney, M. A., Caughlin, T. T., & Cattau, M. E. (2026). Recreation and firearms use as an emerging wildfire risk on western United States National Conservation Lands. Journal of Environmental Management, 398, 128564.
Abstract
Public lands are sources of valuable ecological, social, cultural, economic, scientific, and recreational resources in the United States. Wildfires may threaten the continued provision of some of these benefits. Fire management on public lands is increasingly challenging due to the growing array of human activities responsible for fires, including recreational target shooting. We used detailed information in agency fire reports from 1992 to 2020 to advance our understanding of contemporary wildfire ignition sources and patterns on a subset of public lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM): the National Conservation Lands (NCL) system. We used a multi-scale approach, first exploring patterns of wildfire causes across 17 NCLs. Natural ignitions were dominant within 71 % of NCLs and accounted for 73 % of all ignitions. Although less frequent, human-caused ignitions have increased since 1992 across all NCLs, indicative of a potential departure from regional patterns. Second, we focused on a case study site, the Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey (MONE) National Conservation Area. MONE represents an exception among and potential future state for other NCLs. We found that 25 % of all BLM NCL ignitions from 1992 through 2020 were within MONE and furthermore, 68 % of ignitions at MONE were attributed to human activities, predominantly firearms and explosives use (34 %). Previous work exploring national patterns in ignitions has shown that the non-coastal western US has more natural ignitions, but we found that MONE, with its high rate of human-caused ignitions, serves as an example of ignition patterns in a conservation area with intense recreational use and diverse human impacts. Ultimately, we emphasize the need for targeted outreach and regulatory approaches to reduce recreational shooting ignitions and advocate for increased use of improved reporting standards for fire cause data. • Natural ignitions caused most fires in NCLs and were more frequent than human ignitions. • Human-caused ignitions have increased across all NCLs since 1992. • Morley Nelson Snake River Birds of Prey (MONE) NCA is a hotspot of recreation-related ignitions. • Human-caused ignition prevalence at MONE may portend future conditions on other NCLs. • New fire cause data standards should expand our understanding of ignition sources.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2026.128564
FLARE author(s): Jody Brandt
Dulyakasem, R., Brooks, C., Lehnert, S. L., & Newton, P. (2026). Community-based natural resource management in coastal communities: The contribution of mangroves to household livelihoods in southern Thailand. Environmental Development, 57, 101340.
Abstract
The degradation and loss of mangrove forests decreases the capacity of these ecosystems to contribute to the livelihoods of local people in coastal areas. Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) has been adopted as a means to sustainably conserve ecological systems and improve livelihoods. We explored the links between CBNRM and livelihoods in mangrove ecosystems by asking: In what ways and to what extent do households benefit from mangrove forests? and How do individuals and households contribute to the protection of these benefits, through CBNRM? We conducted structured interviews in 150 households across three coastal communities in southern Thailand. We found that households gained multiple livelihood benefits from mangrove forests, which included provisioning (e.g., fish, timber), cultural (e.g., family and community cohesiveness, community-based tourism), regulating (e.g., coastal protection, air quality regulation), and supporting (e.g., habitats and nursery grounds for aquatic biodiversity) ecosystem services. Across 150 households, an average of 38 % of household income derived from mangroves, and 90 % of households perceived mangroves to be important for their livelihoods. Additionally, we found that community members actively participated in and contributed to multiple CBNRM activities. A primary motivation to participate included the desire to maintain access to livelihood benefits that their household or community enjoyed from the mangroves. Our findings suggest that CBNRM is an effective mechanism by which local communities can manage mangroves and improve livelihoods. Our paper contributes an empirical understanding of the importance of mangroves for livelihoods under CBNRM using a large sample size of households in an ecologically important region.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2025.101340
FLARE author(s): Peter Newton
Erbaugh, J. T., Lu, L., Robinson, B. E., Chang, C. H., Molnar, I., Papp, D., & Masuda, Y. J. (2026). Choosing wisely: using discrete choice experiments with experts to inform conservation action. Environmental Research Letters, 21(11), 114012.
Abstract
Conservation actions often rely on expert knowledge. Ensuring that expert elicitation is broadly inclusive, analyzed rigorously, and cost effective is challenging. Discrete choice experiments (DCEs) with experts present an opportunity to measure the preferences individuals with technical knowledge hold for the provision of public goods. We present a novel approach that combines machine learning, language models, and an email campaign to reach over two thousand experts with a record of peer-reviewed publication. We apply this approach to understand the preferences experts ( n = 2 731) have for natural climate solutions (NCSs) that focus on ecosystem restoration. We found that experts have a collective preference for distributing funding across a variety of actions rather than concentrating on specific restoration actions. In addition, experts preferred that restoration take place in lower-income contexts, highlighting the important role such NCS can play in promoting human well-being in marginalized regions with lower opportunity costs for land. These preferences were robust to experts’ area and regional expertise, supporting the conclusion that their preferences did not narrowly reflect private interests. Overall, our research demonstrates how DCEs can synthesize expert knowledge to inform complex problems around provisioning public goods for conservation.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ae5fac
FLARE author(s): J.T. Erbaugh
Falayi, M., Lukhabi, D. K., Bana, L., Ekumah, N. O., Egbenya, V. C., Aheto, D. W., Lolila, N. J., Seki, H., Shirima, D., Issifu, I., Zhang, M., & Sunderland, T. (2026). Nested Institutions and Overlapping Mandates: A Policy Analysis of Mangrove Governance in Ghana, Tanzania Mainland, and Zanzibar. Environmental Policy and Governance, 36(4), 1019-1033.
Abstract
Mangroves are critical resources in sustaining coastal communities by providing essential ecosystem goods and services. Occurring within the interface of land and sea, they serve as critical ecological zones shaped by dynamic interactions between terrestrial and marine systems. Using qualitative policy analysis of legal instruments, policy documents, and peer‐reviewed literature, the study investigates how nested governance arrangements influence mangrove management. The findings show that mangrove governance across the three contexts takes hybrid forms shaped by historical trajectories and legal pluralism. Although participatory mechanisms such as CREMAs in Ghana, Joint Forest Management in Tanzania Mainland, and Community Forest Management Agreements in Zanzibar formally recognise community involvement, authority remains unevenly distributed due to fragmented institutional mandates and unclear tenure arrangements. As a result, mangrove governance is constrained by overlapping institutional responsibilities and weak enforcement. These findings suggest that reforms should prioritise integrated land–seascape approaches, stronger coordination across sectors, and greater statutory support for local institutions to sustain mangrove ecosystems.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.70092
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Fu, H., Chen, X., Jiang, P., Fei, D., & Liao, C. (2026). Exploring land consolidation solutions towards land use low-carbon transition: Evidence from Shenzhen, China. Land Use Policy, 170, 108172.
Abstract
Land consolidation is increasingly recognized as a key instrument for promoting low-carbon land-use transitions. However, its effectiveness varies under different policy orientations, and how to design strategies for whole-region integrated land consolidation remains insufficiently understood. We develop a systematic approach to identify and prioritize land consolidation potential under alternative land-use optimization pathways. Four low-carbon land-use scenarios are constructed for Shenzhen, China, and future land-use configurations are simulated using a multi-objective optimization approach coupled with the Patch-generating Land Use Simulation model. Land consolidation potential into six types, which enables spatial prioritization of consolidation interventions across the whole region. Results reveal strong scenario dependence in land consolidation patterns. High-priority areas are dominated by ecological restoration for carbon sequestration (37.16%) under the carbon emission reduction preference scenario, construction intensive consolidation area (99.54%) under the economic development preference scenario, and ecological protection for carbon sequestration (98.00%) under the ecological protection preference scenario. Under the balanced multi-objective scenario, no high-potential areas are identified; instead, medium-potential zones dominated by ecological protection for carbon sequestration (97.22%) prevail, indicating that ecological land remains critical to overall land-use benefits. The study advances a multifunctional land consolidation framework that links land-use zoning with policy objectives and provides theoretical insights into coordinated land-use optimization and practical implications for differentiated land consolidation strategies in rapidly urbanizing regions.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2026.108172
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Gladstone, F., & Agrawal, A. (2026). Commoning mobilizations and institutional outcomes in Indian forests from colonial to postcolonial periods. Ecological Economics, 250, 109149.
Abstract
Commoning is the ongoing social practice, grounded in generalized reciprocity rather than market exchange or hierarchical authority, through which members of a collective mutually create and sustain some aspects of their shared material and non-material lives and themselves. It is embedded in the creation and sustaining of commons - resources and associated social and institutional infrastructures created, used, or managed collectively by groups of users. Although scholars of commons and common-pool resources have contributed to substantial research on how institutional arrangements and characteristics of resources shape sustainability outcomes, fewer studies of the commons assess the commoning processes that lead to commons governance institutions and shared resources. This paper focuses on the historical emergence of forest commons in India to show how commoning related social mobilizations shape commons institutions. Our comparative examination of the nearly hundred-year history of two different commoning processes indicates that the evolving dynamics and the lived experiences, objectives, and interactions of those engaged in commoning affect both the structure and the effects of commons institutions. The empirical analysis illuminates the black box of institutional architecture that tends to remain the starting point for many analyses of common property arrangements. By connecting variations in commoning processes with variations in the structure, outcomes, and longevity of the commons, the paper develops an explanatory framework through which to understand how commoning centrally shapes institutional arrangements, their performance, and the human-nature relationships of those engaged in commoning. It ends with a call for closer engagement between research concerned with the emancipatory politics of commoning as a new frontier of work on transformative change and that on the governance of the commons and common pool resources.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2026.109149
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal
Gladstone, F., Agrawal, A., & Basurto, X. (2026). Markets, states, and social movements shape commoning and commons. Journal of Rural Studies, 124, 104055.
Abstract
Many scholars of common-pool resource governance recognize that external actors play important roles in shaping the creation and outcomes of commons. But systematic attention to their influence has been infrequent. The growing body of research on commoning offers relevant theoretical tools for examining external influences on processes of institutional emergence and outcomes. Focusing on the commoning of Baja California Sur small-scale fisheries, our study leverages a comparative historical case study approach to examine the creation and reproduction of fishing cooperatives in two periods of postrevolutionary Mexican history. We trace a multi-stranded process whereby public, private and social movement actors influenced the decisions and actions of resource users related to the emergence and long-term features of commons institutions. We find that capitalist development of value-added, export-oriented fisheries, state laws and policies, and social movements were critical factors in the emergence of sustainable fishing cooperatives in the mid-20th century postrevolutionary period. These factors were absent since the 1990s as new fishing cooperatives emerged with neoliberal changes to fisheries policy and the rise of an environmental movement. Still, conservation-oriented researchers and NGOs have influenced development of more democratic processes and resource monitoring in some of the more recently formed cooperatives. We conclude by arguing for greater attention to the collective processes that affect the specific features of commoning–including external-local actor interactions– for deeper insights into the sustainability and durability of commons institutions.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2026.104055
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal
Gladstone, F. J., & Agrawal, A. (2026). Social mobilizations for sustainability transformations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 123(9), e2537960123.
Abstract
In 1985, Evans et al. made an influential and largely successful call for Bringing the State Back In to sociopolitical analyses. In contrast, Walter et al. ask environmental social scientists to attend to civil society. They emphasize, especially, social movements and mobilizations as critical levers for achieving just sustainability transformations. This focus on social movements and mobilizations is a welcome addition to a literature that has focused primarily on governance, government policies, technological innovations, private and public finance, and individual behaviors as instruments of transformative change, with attention to civil society mostly confined to large nonprofit organizations. Their call is particularly important, given the widespread attacks on environmental defenders and activists globally. This commentary calls for closer attention to the causal factors, relationships, and mechanisms through which social protests and mobilizations bring about transformative change, and for understanding the tensions and relationships between protest-driven change and the consolidation of institutional and governance arrangements that follow it.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2537960123
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal
Govindarajulu, D., Foster, T., Pritchard, R., Baumann, M., Kuemmerle, T., Morey, B., Parmar, A., Chhatre, A., & Oldekop, J. A. (2026). Contrasting patterns of deforestation and reforestation in India’s tropical dry woodlands. Environmental Research Letters, 21(9), 094011.
Abstract
Tropical dry woodlands are key ecosystems for global biodiversity, carbon storage, and forest-based livelihoods in some of the poorest regions of the world. Many of these woodlands have been historically converted and degraded, and while recovery occurs in some areas, the pressure on remaining tropical dry woodlands remains high. Despite this, our understanding of the spatial patterns of tropical dry woodland change is poor. Here, we reconstruct spatio-temporal dynamics of dry woodlands between 2014 and 2024 across India at 30 m resolution, a country with a long land-use history and widespread historical woodland decline, as well as large and active woodland restoration commitments. To better understand the geographic patterns of change, we conduct a spatial autocorrelation analysis of woodland losses and gains to compare decreases and increases of woodland cover inside and outside government-administered lands. Our study reveals a gross gain of ∼2.10 million hectare (Mha) compared with a loss of ∼0.29 Mha of woodland. Within this net gain of 1.80 Mha, we find contrasting spatial patterns of woodland loss and gain. Government administered lands, where most of the country’s native dry woodlands remain, experienced a loss of 0.17 Mha (58% of total loss). In contrast, outside government-administered lands, which are often human-dominated agricultural landscapes where active reforestation initiatives and forest plantations take place, tropical dry woodland area increased by around 0.78 Mha (37% of total gain). Our results highlight that regional- or national-level woodland trends can mask important fine-scale deforestation and reforestation patterns with important implications for biodiversity, ecosystem services, and rural livelihoods outcomes. As countries expand conservation and restoration efforts in the wake of the 30 × 30 agenda and other commitments, it is critical for monitoring efforts to capture the patterns of dry woodland change at sufficient detail to inform policy making and spatial planning, and thus to support desired restoration outcomes.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ae61cb
FLARE author(s): Ashwini Chhatre, Johan Oldekop
Gupta, E., Agarwal, S., Dutta, S., Thakur, D., Sharma, H., Erbaugh, J., Singh, R., Singh, G., & Shyamsundar, P. (2026). Farmer’s preferences for different Crop Residue Management practices: Evidence from Choice Experiment in Punjab India. SSRN Electronic Journal.
Abstract
This study employs a Discrete Choice Experiment with 1,224 rice-growing farmers across Punjab to quantify preferences for no-burn crop residue management (CRM) technologies relative to the status quo of residue burning. Using a Random Parameter Logit framework, we find that the persistence of burning reflects a constrained equilibrium driven by service-market risks rather than farmer inertia. While farmers prefer incorporation-based (Super Seeder) or hybrid (Smart Seeder) technologies, the mulching-based Happy Seeder faces a significant valuation gap due to perceived agronomic uncertainty. Logistical reliability is the dominant driver; a 1–3 day machinery window commands a substantial positive willingness-to-pay (INR 307/acre), identifying time certainty as a primary operational constraint. Adoption is further hindered by a strong aversion to digital-only advisory services (INR-313/acre), which suggests a deep reliance on physical accountability for technically sensitive transitions. Institutional trust remains a critical barrier: farmers significantly prefer informal farmer-to-farmer rentals over cooperatives, while Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs) lack a statisticallysignificant ”trust premium” over informal providers. Adoption is further hindered by larger landholdings and high perceived costs, but bolstered by expectations of yield and fuel gains. To enable sustainable biomass management, policy must shift from equipment subsidies toward de-risking the transition through professionalized service guarantees and hybrid, human-centric advisory systems that bridge the reliability gap.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.6709419
FLARE author(s): J.T. Erbaugh
Hajjar, R., Charnley, S., Frey, G. E., McGinley, K., Schelhas, J., & Cubbage, F. W. (2026). The contributions of community forests to rural prosperity in the United States. World Development, 207, 107509.
Abstract
Community forests (CFs) are a forest ownership and governance approach that enable community members and other key stakeholders to cooperatively manage local forests to produce a range of benefits that align with local community priorities. While well-studied internationally, there is a lack of research that systematically documents how CFs can contribute to rural prosperity in the U.S. amidst ongoing socioeconomic and environmental change. We adapt a framework developed to characterize the contributions of forests to rural prosperity in the international context to investigate the environmental, economic, and social benefits from CFs. In examining 18 in-depth CF case studies, we find that establishing CFs increases access to and control over local forests by local communities, allowing them to manage forests according to local priorities and needs. Economically, many CFs bring in earned income and employment, directly and indirectly, from forest products and services, and support local businesses through tourism and recreation. Social benefits of CFs include access to recreation opportunities, enhancing social relations, and building community identity, security, and empowerment. In extending existing rural prosperity frameworks, we propose that environmental benefits of CFs, including forest protection and restoration and reducing wildfire risk, also play a key role in enhancing rural prosperity. Evidence from these cases suggests that local governance of forests for the production of local benefits using a CF model is a promising approach to enhancing rural prosperity in the U.S.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2026.107509
FLARE author(s): Reem Hajjar
Hernandez‐Montilla, M., Devenish, K., Alencar, L., Benzeev, R., Choksi, P., Djenontin, I. N. S., Fagan, M. E., Fischer, H., Isaacs Cubides, P., Linhares Juvenal, T., Kabutey‐Ongor, M., Kamoto, J., Kinzer, A., Kroeker‐Maus, D., Mansourian, S., Melo, F., Miller, D. C., Nofyanza, S., Pradeep, A., .. Oldekop, J. A. (2026). Forwarding forest restoration: Seven key socio‐ecological issues for advancing forest restoration in a world in flux. People and Nature, 8(3), 569-581.
Abstract
Restoring forests can help conserve biodiversity, mitigate climate change and enhance human well-being. Despite financial and political support for global forest restoration initiatives, projects continue to face persistent challenges and trade-offs between environmental, climatic and socio-economic goals. To better understand existing and future challenges and opportunities, we convened a diverse panel of 25 international experts from academia, science and policy organisations, funding agencies and the private sector. Through a structured expert elicitation process, we collectively identify seven key socio-ecological issues likely to substantially shape forest restoration in low and middle-income countries over the next decade. The identified issues are linked to: (i) adverse environmental impacts of poorly designed forest restoration initiatives; (ii) continued inattention to human well-being and diverse values; (iii) the funding gap for long-term restoration and challenges of private investment; (iv) new power dynamics and elites; (v) the looming technological revolution from Artificial Intelligence and related technologies; (vi) increasing need for adaptation to climate change to be built into restoration practice; and (vii) increasing competition and contestation for land. Our findings reinforce rising concerns that current restoration paradigms, which often favour large-scale carbon-centric interventions, risk undermining environmental and social outcomes. Whether emerging AI technologies and diversified private-sector funding mechanisms can support community-led, bottom-up restoration depends on establishing robust regulatory frameworks, equitable access to technology and capacity building. Raising awareness of these unresolved and emerging issues can help to inform forest restoration practice that is ecologically effective, more equitable and resilient to future change. Success depends on policymakers and practitioners seizing emerging opportunities while critically evaluating current practices to ensure they promote, rather than undermine, these goals. Building decentralised governance structures and diversified funding sources can help sustain and safeguard restoration efforts, particularly against policy volatility from political regime changes. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Spanish translation: Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.70254
FLARE author(s): Daniel Miller, Johan Oldekop, Laura Vang Rasmussen
Hernandez‐Montilla, M., Pritchard, R., Foster, T., & Oldekop, J. A. (2026). Mapping the rights‐implementation gap in Forest Landscape Restoration: evidence from Mexico. Restoration Ecology, 34(4).
Abstract
Introduction The inclusion of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs) in Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) is central to international agendas. Yet, the understanding of how national frameworks operationalize this principle through concrete mechanisms for IPLC participation and rights recognition remains limited. Mexico exemplifies this issue: despite 60% of forests under community management and commitments to restore 8.4 million hectares by 2030, very few restoration projects report meaningful community involvement. Objectives This study determines: (1) the extent to which existing policies align with core FLR principles; (2) how these policies incorporate mechanisms for meaningful IPLC inclusion and rights recognition; and (3) what barriers and opportunities constrain or facilitate policy translation into practice. Methods We assessed 24 Mexican policies (1988–2024) using two complementary indices: an FLR alignment index measuring adherence to eight core restoration principles, and an IPLC inclusion index ranging from exclusion to full autonomy in decision‐making. We followed these with a thematic analysis of policy content to identify barriers and opportunities constraining or facilitating policy‐to‐practice translation. Results Policies demonstrated strong alignment with FLR principles: landscape focus, ecological functionality, multiple benefits, and local adaptation. However, although all policies recognized stakeholder involvement in principle, IPLC inclusion in decision‐making remained severely constrained: only four documents positioned IPLCs as equal collaborators, one granted community leadership, and one provided full autonomy. Conclusions Mexican restoration policy recognizes FLR principles but lacks institutional mechanisms to operationalize meaningful IPLC participation. This gap between international standards and national implementation reflects deeper institutional and governance constraints, underscoring the need for structural changes for equitable and effective restoration.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.70351
FLARE author(s): Johan Oldekop
Hochard, J., Erbaugh, J. T., Garg, T., Abashidze, N., Simpson, S., Nonemaker, S., Smart, L., Siu, W. Y., Hamilton, S., & Masuda, Y. J. (2026). Co-benefit premiums can enhance nature-based climate solutions. Nature Climate Change, 16(8), 869-871.
Abstract
Carbon markets reward the climate mitigation benefits of nature-based solutions but rarely value their broader societal impacts. Creating markets for verified co-benefits, such as coastal protection and biodiversity, could redirect investment towards projects that deliver larger gains for both people and climate.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-026-02690-1
FLARE author(s): J.T. Erbaugh
Hulugh, V., Redmore, L., & Zavaleta Cheek, J. (2026). Assessing conservation planning in South Dakota: Challenges and opportunities in collaboration, public participation, and climate information. Parks Stewardship Forum, 42(1).
Abstract
Conservation planning protects habitats, supports biodiversity, and sustains ecosystem functions that support human and ecological well-being. Natural resource managers are expected to make sound management decisions and balance competing interests in a social-ecological context. However, they face challenges related to effective collaboration, public participation in decision-making, and the application of climate information. This study describes conservation planning challenges in South Dakota, a predominantly rural state where over 80% of land is privately owned, and natural resources are highly valued. We used an inductive, qualitative research approach, including in-depth interviews with 35 experts and content analysis of 56 conservation plans. Our study identifies the absence of complementary goals among federal, state, and non-profit organizations. Managers have concerns that current methods of public engagement are inadequate and often result in low engagement during the public participation process. Limited understanding and application of climate data were prevalent among managers. Our findings indicate that managers face multiple, complex demands in conservation planning. Conservation outcomes can be more sustainable when collaborative efforts are complementary, public perspectives are incorporated, and clear guidance exists for using climate tools. This study positions relationships as an important social foundation for conservation success. The insights from this study inform policy and practice by offering considerations for improving collaboration, public participation, and the use of scientific data.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.5070/p5.62088
FLARE author(s): Jennifer Zavaleta Cheek
Iskin, E., Kolarik, N., Rojas Lucero, J. C., & Brandt, J. (2026). Monitoring Change in Floodplain Vegetation Due To River Restoration Treatments With Remote Sensing in the Intermountain West. Water Resources Research, 62(6).
Abstract
River corridors are essential to life, but have been subjected to centuries of alteration, disconnection, and simplification. Process‐based river restoration has increased in recent years, with the goals of reversing degradation and reestablishing natural processes. Our objectives are twofold: (a) qualify the historic, ecologic, and geomorphic contexts of eight U.S. projects with information gathering, and (b) quantify the causal impact of treatments on remotely‐sensed floodplain vegetation with counterfactual analysis. The most frequent goals were to increase connectivity and support beaver, and the most frequent degradation drivers were grazing/agriculture and beaver removal. There is a >99% probability that treatment increased the floodplain area of vegetation in Oregon at Bridge Creek by an average of 20%, at Whychus Creek by 21%, and at Lost Creek by 29%; and in Idaho at the Yankee Fork by 8%. There is no evidence that treatments affected vegetation area in Idaho at Baugh Creek (>90% probability); or in Colorado at either the South Fork South Platte River (>70% probability) or Fourmile Creek (>70% probability). There is a >90% probability that treatment decreased vegetation area in Idaho at Tincup Creek by 12%. Additional study is needed to determine how key characteristics, such as ecoregion and land use intensity, influence outcomes. We recommend that restoration monitoring pair remote sensing with local knowledge and field data collection to fully measure treatment effects. As ongoing restoration projects mature, our study can serve as a roadmap for further investigation into the long‐term outcomes of river restoration.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1029/2025wr042169
FLARE author(s): Jody Brandt
Islam, S., Donato, K. M., Bailey, K., & Carrico, A. R. (2026). Spousal migration and well-being of married women in Southwestern Bangladesh. Climate and Development, 1-15.
Abstract
In this research, we examine the differentiated experiences of married women as a function of their husbands’ migration status (current migrant or not). Utilizing multiple regression models, we investigate whether husbands’ migration status correlates with the mental and physical health of women, controlling for socio-economic and demographic variables. We also explore whether environmental stress interacts with husband’s migration status to predict well-being. In the last set of models, we limit the sample to remained-behind women whose husbands are current migrants to examine whether the conditions of the husbands’ trip relate to the outcome variables. Though remained-behind women have better emotional and physical well-being, on average, we find no direct relationship between husbands’ migration status and women’s well-being once other variables are controlled for. However, we observe a significant interaction between remained-behind status and experience of storm-related loss or damage, suggesting that remained-behind women report poorer physical health outcomes relative to peers when exposed to storms. Emotional distress is also higher among remained-behind women living with their in-laws in storm-affected households. This research brings attention to the experiences of remained-behind women amidst increasing migration trends and provides insights into how their well-being is associated with both migration dynamics and environmental stressors.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2026.2653120
FLARE author(s): Karen Bailey
Issifu, I., Falayi, M., Sunderland, T., & Sumaila, U. R. (2026). Mangroves as land and ocean buffers: A comparative analysis of mangrove ecosystem services in Ghana and Tanzania. Ocean & Coastal Management, 280, 108301.
Abstract
Mangroves provide essential ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, fisheries support, and coastal protection, thereby contributing significantly to climate resilience and coastal livelihoods. Using the Global Mangrove Watch 2020 dataset and the ecosystem valuation technique of benefit transfer, we quantify the value of blue carbon storage and coastal protection in Ghana and Tanzania. The latter is endowed with approximately 110,694 ha of mangroves, which is over six times greater than Ghana's 17,887 ha. Under the Africa-specific primary valuation scenario 150–300 Mg C ha −1 , Tanzania's mangroves are estimated to store approximately 92–153 MtCO 2 e of blue carbon, compared with 11–22 MtCO 2 e in Ghana. Applying a global carbon price range of US$5–10 per tCO 2 e , the value of Tanzania's carbon stock would range between US$460–1530 million while Ghana's range between US$57–226. However, these estimated values reflect gross potential and may reduce after accounting for transaction costs and long-term carbon permanence requirements. Sensitivity analyses using global maximum carbon coefficients generated substantially larger potential estimates, emphasizing the importance of regionally calibrated coefficients in blue carbon accounting. Tanzania also has greater restoration potential and annual CO 2 capture, indicating higher climate mitigation capacity of the country's mangroves. Despite Tanzania's larger mangrove extent, Ghana's mangrove forests provide higher coastal protection, valued at $121 million annually and $469 million during a 100-year storm event owing to the concentration of assets and population along its coastline. Fishing pressure, however, remains more intense in Ghana, threatening long term sustainability. Integrating carbon storage, fisheries pressure, and coastal protection within a unified analytical framework reveals key service trade-offs and synergies with direct implications for conservation investment priorities. Tanzania functions as a blue carbon stronghold requiring sustained protection, while Ghana represents a high-priority restoration frontier where integrated conservation and livelihood diversification can maximize ecosystem service co-benefits.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2026.108301
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Jiang, R., Fu, H., Chen, X., Cai, M., Jiang, P., Fei, D., & Liao, C. (2026). Goal-oriented zoning for multifunctional land use: A multi-objective optimization approach to low-carbon transition in Shenzhen, China. Sustainable Cities and Society, 145, 107478.
Abstract
In the context of accelerating climate change, resource scarcity, and rapid urbanization, designing spatially explicit, decision-oriented strategies that coordinate multiple land-use functions and support low-carbon transitions is essential for balancing environmental sustainability with economic development in cities. Focusing on Shenzhen, one of China’s fastest-growing megacities, we propose a goal-oriented urban land-use zoning framework grounded in multi-objective land-use optimization that jointly considers carbon emissions, ecosystem services values, and economic benefits. Specifically, we implement this optimization by integrating the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II with the Patch-generating Land Use Simulation model to simulate land-use patterns in 2035 under a low-carbon transition scenario designed to balance emission reduction, economic development, and ecological protection. Based on the characteristics of projected land-use transitions, we construct spatially explicit zoning rules that translate optimization outcomes into differentiated governance zones, which include carbon control development, carbon transition agriculture, carbon sink protection, and carbon sink restoration, each accounting for 36%, 13%, 39%, and 13% of the study area. Each zone is paired with targeted, place-specific governance strategies to support multifunctional land-use planning and urban low-carbon transition. The study provides a spatially explicit and transferable decision-support framework for coordinating land-system transformation, strengthening urban ecological resilience, and supporting long-term carbon-neutral development in rapidly urbanizing regions.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2026.107478
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Jiang, Q., Xu, Z., Bhattarai, N., Lin, Y., Xiao, H., Ren, J., Pahlow, M., Jiang, Z., Liu, Y., Wu, X., Ye, G., Zhang, H., Li, J., Zhu, P., Liang, S., Cui, Y., Liao, C., Dong, L., & Liu, J. (2026). Promoting sustainable development worldwide in the metacoupled anthropocene. Nature Communications, 17(1), 1491.
Abstract
Promoting sustainable development worldwide requires collaborative efforts across interconnected systems under integrated frameworks. Here, we illustrate the integrated metacoupling framework as a holistic lens for analyzing human-nature interactions within and between systems to advance integrated sustainability analysis. We propose six interrelated steps to operationalize the framework for Sustainable Development Goals' interaction analysis, progress assessment, and pathway modeling, contributing to the integration of knowledge for the 2030 Agenda and emphasizing "Leave No One Behind". We demonstrate that the framework offers interdisciplinary researchers a practical toolkit and supports policymakers in developing synergistic cross-system strategies for sustainable development across local to global scales.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-68653-4
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Jung, S., Dundas, S. J., Reid, J., & Wood, D. (2026). Gaps in mangrove forest valuation limit understanding of socioeconomic benefits. Environmental Research Letters, 21(11), 114003.
Abstract
Mangrove forests face disproportionately higher deforestation rates that exceed those of tropical rainforests. While accurately estimating their economic value is essential for informing conservation policies, existing valuation studies produce highly variable estimates, limiting their relevance for decision-making. In this study, we develop a set of method-specific evaluation criteria to assess the quality of mangrove valuation research. We systematically review recent estimates of mangrove ecosystem service values and compare their ranges before and after applying these criteria. Our curated estimates provide a more realistic and policy-relevant value range by eliminating studies likely to under- or over-estimate direct and indirect use, non-use, or option values. We find average per-hectare value estimates for direct uses increase by 14%, while average estimates for indirect use and total economic value decline extensively after the curation. We also identify opportunities to strengthen future valuation efforts, including methodological improvements, integration of new remote sensing products, estimation of marginal value changes, and better accounting for regulating services under increasing climate risks.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ae6dd8
FLARE author(s): Suhyun Jung
Jung, S., & Adjisse, S. S. (2026). Land Rights Awareness and Community Engagement in Resource Management: Evidence from a Lab-in-the-Field Experiment in Liberia. SSRN Electronic Journal.
Abstract
Effective management of common-pool resources is critical for sustainable development in lowincome settings, where formal enforcement capacity is often limited. We use a lab-in-the-field experiment in Liberia to study how peer communication and legal-rights information shape individual tree extraction decisions. Our legal information treatments provide a structured summary of key provisions of Liberia’s Land Rights Act, while a facilitated treatment supplements this summary with guided explanation and a question-and-answer session to deepen comprehension. Relative to an open-access baseline, both peer communication and basic legal information reduce tree harvesting by 22–26%, and the facilitated legal information treatment decreases extraction by 30%. Introducing a simulated resource collapse before any intervention increases harvesting by 9% relative to open access, consistent with panic-driven over-extraction under uncertainty. In contrast, when the same shock follows the interventions, harvesting falls by 5%. Linking game behavior to detailed pre-intervention household characteristics shows that baseline extraction closely mirrors real-world resource-use incentives, indicating that the experiment captures meaningful, not artificial, decision making. These findings show that combining local deliberation with a strengthened understanding of property rights can curb over-extraction and promote cooperative responses to scarcity, even in the absence of strong formal enforcement. More broadly, these results highlight the value of legally grounded information and community engagement in fostering self-sustaining resource governance in developing-country contexts.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.6602164
FLARE author(s): Suhyun Jung
Kabutey-Ongor, M., Devenish, K., Hernández-Montilla, M. C., Alencar, L., Barragán-Contreras, S. J., Thöner, V. C., Hajjar, R., Hidayat, Y., Kaimowitz, D., Karna, B. K., Khuu, D. T., Krogh, A. C., Larson, A. M., Liehr, E., Mutta, D., Newton, P., Nofyanza, S., Ogden, B., Pulgar Vidal, M., .. Oldekop, J. A. (2026). A horizon scan of global issues on forests and livelihoods for 2026. Forest Policy and Economics, 185, 103738.
Abstract
Thriving forests and forest-connected communities' livelihoods depend on stable governance arrangements, secure rights, and favourable financial and market conditions. However, recent geopolitical, economic, and technological changes raise concerns that emerging risks may outpace existing systems of oversight, participation, and protection. While global environmental change is widely studied, less attention has been given to how recent political, financial, and technological shifts may reshape forests and forest-connected livelihoods in the near term. To identify emerging, near-term challenges and opportunities, we conducted a four-stage Delphi-style horizon scan with an international panel of 25 experts to identify ten emerging issues expected to shape forests and forest-connected livelihoods over the next decade. These key issues for 2026 include: (i) the decline of traditional Global North aid and research funding; (ii) social-ecological change driven by technologies including artificial intelligence, remote sensing, and expanding satellite internet connectivity; (iii) accelerating demand for gold and critical minerals, particularly rare earths / noble earths, and the expansion of extraction frontiers; (iv) rising authoritarianism and shrinking civic space; (v) evolving regulation and growth of carbon and emerging biodiversity and ecosystem service markets; (vi) erosion of the post-World War II multilateral order and associated international norms; (vii) emergence of innovative mechanisms for direct financing to Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities; (viii) major shifts in EU trade and due-diligence regimes; (ix) the African Union's new ten-year agri-food strategy and its implications for land use; and (x) the uncertain fate of the Amazon rainforest under upcoming national elections in Brazil, Peru, and Colombia. By identifying and discussing these key issues, our horizon scan yields new understanding and foresight of how rapidly unfolding current events and advances may influence forests, forest-connected communities, and their livelihoods in the coming years. In so doing, our exercise also develops an agenda for research, policy, and practice at the intersection of forests and livelihoods.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2026.103738
FLARE author(s): Daniel Miller, Johan Oldekop, Laura Vang Rasmussen, Peter Newton, Reem Hajjar
Koehn, C. R., Caughlin, T. T., Halperin, S., Hopping, K., Som Castellano, R., & Brandt, J. (2026). Carbon stock protection and food production are key targets for conservation planning in a landscape of public and private lands. Landscape Ecology, 41(4).
Abstract
Context Demand for land for urban development, food production, and protected areas is increasing, leading to land scarcity. In response, agricultural lands are increasingly targeted for protection. Yet, which land attributes should be used to identify priority lands to protect remains largely unknown. Objectives (1) Is private land protection necessary to protect nature’s contributions to people [NCP] in a region dominated by public protected areas? (2) Which NCP indicators are the most important drivers of optimal land protection? Methods We applied the NCP framework in Idaho’s Snake River Plain, a water-limited, climate-sensitive ecoregion dominated by public lands with a quickly growing human population. We quantified 21 NCPs and used systematic conservation planning to generate cost-efficient land protection solutions. We also developed a sensitivity analysis workflow to determine which NCP inputs were most influential for priority protected area selection. Results Current protected areas were highly effective; for 17 of the 21 NCP, the majority of each NCP (> 50% of its total) was covered by public and protected private lands. However, food production is severely under-protected. Food production and carbon stock protection had the most influence on conservation planning scenarios. Ignoring climate-related NCP in agricultural land protection decisions, even in sub-regional planning where climate seems relatively homogenous, can limit contributions to climate mitigation and adaptation. Conclusions Private land protections complement public lands networks for NCP protection. Climate considerations are important to include even in local scale conservation planning. Our reproducible workflows for NCP quantification and conservation planning sensitivity analysis can be used to systematically plan for a broad suite of human benefits.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-026-02307-0
FLARE author(s): Jody Brandt
Kroeger, T., Erbaugh, J. T., Luo, Z., Brumberg, H., Eichhorst, W., Hegwood, M., LoPresti, A., Shyamsundar, P., Ellis, P. W., Oakes, L. E., Martin, D., Brancalion, P. H. S., Bourne, M., Jagadish, A., Austin, K. G., Kinzer, A. T., Sanjuán, M., McCullough, L., & Echavarria, M. (2026). Global literature review and survey of implementation constraints on natural climate solutions. Nature Communications, 17(1).
Abstract
Natural Climate Solutions – protection, restoration, and improved management of lands and waters that reduce greenhouse gasses – have large climate change mitigation potential. However, lack of comprehensive information on implementation challenges hinders the adoption of Natural Climate Solutions and the delivery of near-term mitigation. Using a global survey of Natural Climate Solutions projects and a systematic review of recent studies, we map 46 constraints in eight categories, yielding 15,572 geo-referenced pathway-constraint observations from 501 studies and projects in 137 countries covering 20 of 22 United Nations subregions. Social-behavioral, Knowledge, and Government-Organizational are the most-reported constraint categories, and lack of policy coordination or implementation capacity the most-observed constraint and most frequently top-ranking constraint for pathways and subregions. Despite broad congruence, top constraint and category rankings vary among subregions and pathways, respectively. We find that projects generally encounter diverse sets of challenges. Without enabling efforts, near-term mitigation from Natural Climate Solutions may remain well below its biophysical potential.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-70482-4
FLARE author(s): J.T. Erbaugh
Larson, A., Arenas, M., Lopez-Doriga, J., Miguel, V., Quijandría, G., Ruiz, L., & Nakamura Lam, K. (2026). Conservation and Coexistence in the Andes-Amazon (2025 FLARE Annual Conference Brief). University of Notre Dame.
Abstract
The panel discussion “Conservation and Coexistence in the Andes-Amazon” convened leading experts, policymakers, the private sector, and voices from local and Indigenous communities. Dr. Anne Larson moderated the session, with Valbina Miguel, Yanesha activist and artist; Marco Arenas, former Director of Biodiversity, Peruvian Ministry of Environment; Gabriel Quijandría, IUCN Regional Director for South America and former Minister of the Environment of Perú; Lucía Ruiz, ASRI-UTEC and former Minister of the Environment of Perú; and Jorge López-Dóriga, AJE Group, a global beverage company focused in sustainability, Chief of Communications and Sustainability Officer, as panelists.The conversation addressed the fundamental conflict between traditional models of development, which lead to forest destruction, and the imperative of biodiversity conservation and local well-being. The synthesis below organizes the ten most crucial points raised, demonstrating that the path forward requires not just incremental change, but a holistic overhaul of economic valuations, social policies, governance structures, and international cooperation.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.7274/32635704
FLARE author(s): Katia Nakamura
Liao, C., Rohrbaugh, K., Shin, S., Lee, Y., Bruna, N., Sauer, S., & Wolford, W. (2026). Emerging biofuel crop frontiers risk repeating old land injustices. Nature Food.
Abstract
Past biofuel expansions reveal that when industrial-scale investment outpaces land governance, independent scrutiny and community participation, low-carbon crop transitions can reproduce land concentration, displacement and ecological simplification. A close examination of an emerging biofuel frontier in Brazil shows why land rights, public accountability and equitable benefit-sharing must guide crop-based decarbonization from the outset.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-026-01425-x
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Liao, C., Shin, S., Rohrbaugh, K., Pradhan, N., Ludwig, E., Xu, Z., Ruiz-Aravena, M., Zhou, S., & Agrawal, A. (2026). Global land rush concentrates potential zoonotic spillover risk in the tropics. Communications Sustainability, 1(1).
Abstract
Global land-use change alters human-environment interactions in ways that can generate sustainability risks, including pathogen spillovers across species. Here we integrate global data on large-scale land transactions and zoonotic reservoir species distributions to assess their relationship with potential zoonotic spillover risk. Using a spatially explicit approach, we identify administrative units with elevated zoonotic spillover risk based on hazard-exposure overlap, compare high-risk and other units, and examine tele-coupled investor-host country relationships associated with these patterns. We find that Southeast Asia, Latin America, Eastern Europe, and Africa are major hosts, while spillover risks are more concentrated in Southeast Asia and Latin America. High-risk units tend to feature larger transacted areas and higher forest cover, but lower population and road network density. Domestic and intra-regional transactions account for over half of transacted areas and associated spillover risks. These results highlight the importance of ecological integrity and landscape immunity in sustainability-oriented land-use governance. Potential zoonotic spillover risk concentrates around larger land deals in forested, low-density regions and is often associated with domestic and regional investment flows, according to an analysis of the global land rush and zoonotic reservoir species distributions.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44458-026-00102-1
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal
McCaskill, L., Hajjar, R., & Charnley, S. (2026). Equity in Community Forestry in the United States. Society & Natural Resources, 1-20.
Abstract
In the United States as elsewhere, community forestry is growing as a form of forest management and governance. Community forests bring decision-making and benefits closer to the community, yet not everyone in a community has the same access to either. We examine how community forest governing bodies address equity in decision-making about, and benefits from, community forest management. Using a case-study approach, we conducted semi-structured interviews with stakeholders associated with two community forests in the U.S. Inter-mountain West. The cases took different approaches to enhancing participation in decision-making about forest management, one through formal processes and one through informal channels, with mixed success for advancing equity. The cases also took different approaches to benefit distribution, one being more proactive and deliberate with its efforts and the other more reactive and responsive to pressure from local residents. We discuss key lessons for how community forest formation and governance can be structured more equitably.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2026.2717708
FLARE author(s): Reem Hajjar
Nakamura, K., Cheek, J. Z., Eklund, J., Brooks, J., & Miller, D. C. (2026). Capacity development priorities for enduring biodiversity conservation: A new methodology and evidence from Peru. Biological Conservation, 321, 112013.
Abstract
Capacity development is essential for long-term biodiversity conservation. Yet knowledge of conservation capacity development needs and priorities remains limited, particularly in low- and middle-income countries with high biodiversity and limited institutional capacity. This study addresses this gap by identifying and analyzing the priorities highlighted by conservation professionals in Peru. Using Q-methodology and open-ended surveys, we found three distinct perspectives from 27 conservation professionals working in Peru: strengthening legal enforcement and financing, shifting power to Indigenous Peoples and local communities, and embedding conservation values in public norms. These perspectives reflect fundamentally different theories of change, yet converge in their call for system-level interventions—addressing governance structures, unequal power dynamics, and cultural norms. The findings emphasize that capacity development is inherently political and context-dependent, requiring attention to historical legacies, social values, and institutional barriers. This study aligns with global calls for greater inclusion of local perspectives and offers a replicable approach for grounding conservation policy in practitioner experience and expertise. As international funders and policymakers seek to align support with local realities to advance conservation goals, these findings underscore the need to move beyond one-size-fits-all capacity development toward more targeted approaches that simultaneously address the larger context in which conservation practice is embedded.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2026.112013
FLARE author(s): Daniel Miller, Jennifer Zavaleta Cheek, Katia Nakamura
Nikolakis, W., Gay, V., Merkel, G., Sunderland, T., & Morrison, J. (2026). The relationship between Indigenous Peoples' lands and conservation: A systematic literature review. People and Nature, 8(6), 1676-1691.
Abstract
A growing body of peer‐reviewed literature is focused on the relationship between Indigenous Peoples' lands (Indigenous lands) and conservation outcomes. We performed a systematic review of this English reported peer‐reviewed literature ( n = 111) to examine: the key characteristics; the conservation outcomes documented; the methods used in these studies; and the factors that can shape the effectiveness of Indigenous lands compared to other land tenure types. Positive relationships between Indigenous lands and conservation outcomes were documented in most of the studies ( n = 83, 75%); where Indigenous lands delivered outcomes at levels comparable to or exceeding those of protected areas. Most of these studies were published after 2017 ( n = 81, 73%), and were focused on Amazonia ( n = 67, 60%) and the tropics more generally ( n = 71, 64%). The bulk of these studies performed spatial data analysis ( n = 99, 89%) and compared Indigenous lands to protected areas ( n = 74, 67%) and to multiple tenure types ( n = 52, 47%). Vegetation or forest cover was the most common conservation metric used ( n = 62, 56%), followed by faunal or floral diversity and species distribution ( n = 36, 32%). Eight articles (7%) had self‐identified Indigenous Peoples as authors. Engaging Indigenous Peoples as authors in these studies may deepen understanding of this relationship between Indigenous lands and conservation. The literature highlights numerous threats to Indigenous lands, and 71 articles (64%) offered policy recommendations for sustaining positive relationships between Indigenous lands and conservation, which included strengthening Indigenous land tenure ( n = 37, 33%), supporting Indigenous governance of their lands ( n = 25, 22.5%) and providing funds and resources for Indigenous stewardship of their lands ( n = 24, 22%). Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.70310
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Oldekop, J. A., Agrawal, A., de Jong, W., Djenontin, I., McDermott, C., Pacheco, P. H., & Nakamura Lam, K. (2026). Forests and Transformative Change: Strategic Pathways toward a Sustainable and Equitable Future (2025 FLARE Annual Conference Brief). University of Notre Dame.
Abstract
The 2025 Annual Meeting of the Forest & Livelihoods: Assessment, Research, and Engagement (FLARE) Network, held in Lima, Peru, convened a panel of international experts to deliberate on the critical intersection of forest conservation and transformative change. The session was chaired by Johan Oldekop (University of Manchester) and featured a roundtable of experts: Wil de Jong (University of Freiburg), Ida Djenontin (Penn State University), Constance McDermott (Oxford University), Pablo Pacheco (World Wildlife Fund), and Arun Agrawal (University of Notre Dame).This brief synthesizes the discussion, which focused on the systemic reconfigurations necessary to address the dual crises of biodiversity loss and social inequity. The panel emphasized that while global trajectories often appear grim, a profound opportunity exists to catalyze positive shifts by realigning governance, restoration practices, food chains, and financial systems based on a vision of collective agency.Learn more about the Forest Livelihoods: Assessment, Research, and Engagement (FLARE) Network at forestlivelihoods.org.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.7274/31173979
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal, Johan Oldekop, Katia Nakamura
Pienkowski, T., Poudyal, M., Clark, M., Dulal, B., Gautam, G., Karna, B., Davies, Z., Andrews, J., Oldekop, J., Booth, H., Donald, B., Murray, K., Poudel, S., & Baral, S. (2026). Pro-poor child nutrition gains from decentralised forest governance. Research Square.
Abstract
Robust, population-level causal evidence on how natural resource governance paradigms affect human health remains scarce, and few studies trace mediating pathways. We evaluate eight health outcomes under Nepal’s decentralised Community Forestry programme from 2006 to 2022. Using causal mediation approaches we link georeferenced health data from 24,586 households with 18,184 Community Forests. Effects were clearest for child nutrition: Community Forestry reduced socioeconomic deprivation, particularly in poorer regions, with downstream reductions in stunting and underweight. Scaled nationally, Community Forestry coverage was associated with reductions of 11.3 cases of stunting (89% CI: 3.9 to 18.3) and 8.5 cases of underweight (89% CI: 1.3 to 14.9) per 1,000 children under five annually, equivalent to 33,965 and 25,490 fewer cases nationally each year, relative to a zero-Community-Forestry counterfactual. Our findings indicate that decentralised environmental governance can deliver the long-term co-benefits for the health of people and nature that remain elusive in other paradigms.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-10592270/v1
FLARE author(s): Johan Oldekop
Pradhan, N., Ibáñez, I., Chhatre, A., Duddu, A., Fischer, H. W., Newton, P., Oldekop, J. A., Wilson, S. J., & Agrawal, A. (2026). Advancing biodiversity through poverty solutions. Nature Sustainability, 9(8), 1198-1206.
Abstract
Forests provide several ecosystem services that support the livelihoods of millions of forest-dependent people in lower- and middle-income countries. Provisioning of ecosystem services is directly linked to the maintenance of forest biodiversity, which in turn is influenced by human activities. We leveraged a unique dataset of plot-level tree species data from 322 tropical community forests to analyse the joint effects of demographic, socioeconomic and institutional factors on forest biodiversity, as such impacts have been rarely assessed simultaneously. We find that percentage of poor households and community reliance on fuelwood are associated with lower richness. Over time, forests in areas with higher population density and increasing numbers of poor households experienced declines in local species richness, with dominant species being the most affected. In contrast, forests in areas where households have increased their reliance on subsistence crops are associated with positive changes in species richness and these changes took place across rare, common and dominant species. Social and institutional factors (livestock presence and governance arrangements) showed no association with species richness losses or gains over time. Our analyses suggest that interventions aimed at reducing poverty may create positive effects on community forest diversity and thus on the ecosystem services these forests provide. Forest biodiversity is linked, in many cases, to the myriad ecosystem services that support the livelihoods of human populations. Authors here examine the demographic, socioeconomic and institutional variables that impact forest biodiversity across 322 tropical forests.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-026-01816-9
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal, Ashwini Chhatre, Johan Oldekop, Peter Newton, Sarah Wilson
Pradhan, N., Ibáñez, I., Chhatre, A., Duddu, A., Fischer, H. W., Newton, P., Oldekop, J. A., Wilson, S. J., & Agrawal, A. (2026). Synergies between poverty reduction and biodiversity conservation. Nature Sustainability, 9(8), 1137-1138.
Abstract
Greater household dependence on forest resources is associated with lower tree species diversity in tropical forests, highlighting the interconnected dynamics of poverty and biodiversity in multifunctional landscapes. Forest policies that aim to conserve biodiversity must consider the interconnected dynamics of poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation to achieve multiple sustainability goals.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-026-01830-x
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal, Ashwini Chhatre, Johan Oldekop, Peter Newton, Sarah Wilson
Ramirez, A. R., Castle, S. E., & Wardropper, C. B. (2026). Place attachment and agroforestry adoption. Agroforestry Systems, 100(6).
Abstract
Conventional row crop farming in the United States is associated with multiple environmental challenges including soil and water degradation and decreased biodiversity. Sustainable agriculture advocates have encouraged agroforestry, or the integration of woody perennial crops like trees and shrubs into agricultural systems, to ameliorate environmental challenges and provide on-farm benefits. Despite promised environmental benefits and efforts to increase adoption, rates of agroforestry practice remain low in the US. Researchers have long studied how agricultural decision-making is shaped by psychological, financial, institutional, and logistical challenges, but there is less attention on the role of emotional and cultural factors in the adoption of new agricultural practices. Through interviews with 31 farmers (both adopters and non-adopters of agroforestry) in Illinois, we examine how place attachment, or the cognitive and emotional bonds between people and place, influences the long-term investment decisions associated with agroforestry. We find that place attachment is expressed through distinct dimensions: place dependence, place identity, and place affect. While specific attachments like connection to nature and family legacy often motivate adoption, attachments related to economic dependence on the land and traditional farming identities are sometimes barriers to adoption. Our findings suggest that outreach and extension work on agroforestry may be improved by explicitly acknowledging place-specific values and emotions.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-026-01517-4
FLARE author(s): Sarah Castle
Rana, P., Fleischman, F., & Sharma, A. (2026). Why carbon offsets may fail in complex systems: A causal inference perspective. Environmental Science & Policy, 176, 104325.
Abstract
Social-ecological system dynamics present a fundamental challenge to the attribution of changes in carbon stocks to actions taken by carbon offset sellers. We illustrate this challenge by demonstrating theoretical limitations to causal attribution in two cases from Brazil and India. We show that carbon outcomes in these nature-based carbon offset projects emerge from non-linear and independent dynamics that are the result of the inherent complexity of social-ecological systems, where large numbers of variables jointly influence causal processes. This creates high levels of uncertainty about the causes of outcomes, and thus makes it very difficult to attribute changes in carbon storage to specific causes, such as offset-funded programs. Furthermore, the predominant solution to this problem suggested in the literature, improved causal inference methods, fails to address the challenge because these methods are designed to estimate average effects across many cases, not to measure causality in specific cases. Even well-designed and resourced projects, such as our two cases, must demonstrate their own measurable impact to serve as offsets, and our analysis suggests that current methods are unable to overcome the joint challenges of causal complexity and methods that estimate average, not individual effects. The need for offsets to demonstrate individual causality makes them quite different from analogous conservation tools such as Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), highlighting why project-based offsetting consistently struggles to meet the expectations of credibility. To achieve effective climate change mitigation, policymakers need to focus on policies that do not depend on inherently uncertain causal attribution.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2026.104325
FLARE author(s): Pushpendra Rana
Reyes-García, V., Krug, R. M., Agrawal, A., Benessaiah, K., Bonilla-Moheno, M., Claudet, J., Forsyth, T., Garibaldi, L. A., Gemmill-Herren, B., Guibal, C., Goldstein, B. E., Gosnell, H., Guo, X., Huntjens, P., Ifejika Speranza, C., Leventon, J., Lima, L. S. D., Magris, R. A., Miwa, K., .. Zinngrebe, Y. (2026). Actions and actors driving transformative change for global sustainability. Nature Sustainability, 9(4), 595-603.
Abstract
The urgent need for transformative change to address the intertwined crises of climate change and biodiversity loss is widely recognized. Here, drawing on work originally conducted within the IPBES Transformative Change Assessment and using a bibliometric analysis of more than 4 million scholarly documents, we examine the actions and actors driving transformative change for global sustainability. The literature disproportionately focuses on a limited set of available actions and actors, neglecting others and overlooking their potential interactions. Notably, the actions ‘changing social norms’ and ‘technological change’ and the communication and knowledge and private sectors are frequently discussed, while actions referring to transforming the economic and governance systems and the civil society and the public sector are understudied. Moreover, actions and actors do not tend to appear together in consistent or systematic ways; instead, most action–actor combinations appear at rates similar to random chance, with only a few notable exceptions. The uneven distribution of scholarly attention may hinder the coordination and cross-sectoral coalitions required for effective transformative change. Our findings call for a more inclusive approach to research on actors and actions needed for transformative change towards a just and sustainable world, and for a greater focus on synergies between actions and actors potentially driving transformative change. A bibliometric analysis of more than four million scholarly documents highlights the need for a more inclusive approach to research on actors and actions needed for transformative change towards a just and sustainable world and more emphasis on the synergies between actors and actions that drive change.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-026-01783-1
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal
Rohrbaugh, K., Liao, C., Lacoste, M., & Longchamps, L. (2026). Farmer-centric on-farm experimentation as everyday transformative change for climate adaptation: a systematic review. Ecology and Society, 31(2).
Abstract
A growing proportion of the agricultural research community has been calling for a systemic restructuring of farmer-researcher relationships to accelerate learning and facilitate transformations toward a climate-resilient food system. One set of approaches, farmer-centric on-farm experimentation (OFE), is gaining ground as a renewed means for scientists and other agri-food system actors to co-create knowledge with farmers about their own farms through their everyday adaptation practices. Despite increasing interest, there has been little systematic assessment of how farmer-centric OFE principles and processes transform farmers’ everyday adaptive capabilities to better adapt to climate change. This study fills this gap by drawing from second-order action-oriented transformation research essentials, which aim to facilitate transformative change by shifting how knowledge is produced in scientific research. We examined 39 peer-reviewed articles by considering how farmer-centric OFE supports transformative change in relation to climate change adaptation through these research essentials. Our results confirm substantial variation between OFEs in their definitions of transformative change, methods used, and participation levels of different actors. We identify two major approaches to OFE, one grounded in reflexivity, which explicitly recognizes transformation, and another based on adoption-based reasoning. We highlight the importance of co-learning as a meaningful shift from scientist-led research by repositioning the role of scientists to purposively work with farmers for transformative change. We then suggest pathways for researchers utilizing farmer-centric OFE to incorporate action-oriented transformation research essentials into their approaches, most notably by better integrating social sciences and processes into agricultural innovations.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.5751/es-16962-310211
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Rojas-Lucero, J. C., Solano-Correa, Y. T., Kolarik, N. E., Brandt, J. S., & Caughlin, T. (2026). Spectral indices outperform AlphaEarth foundation embeddings for aboveground biomass estimation in a regenerating tropical Andean forest. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, 42, 102113.
Abstract
Forests play a critical role in regulating the global carbon cycle, acting as major carbon reservoirs. As greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) continue to rise, they are accelerating the pace of climate change; however, accurately quantifying aboveground biomass across large and heterogeneous forest landscapes remains challenging. Satellite remote sensing, together with emerging foundation-model representations such as AlphaEarth embeddings, provides consistent spatial and temporal observations of forest structure, offering an important opportunity for large-scale biomass estimation. The objective of this study is to systematically compare spectral predictors and AlphaEarth foundation-model embeddings for aboveground biomass estimation in regenerating tropical Andean forests using Artificial Neural Network and Random Forest models. We conduct this study in Cauca, Colombia, a region characterized by high ecological diversity, steep environmental gradients, persistent cloud cover, and limited field data availability, making it a suitable test case for evaluating model robustness under complex conditions. We compare two types of predictors: (i) traditional spectral index–based features (e.g., NDVI, EVI, SAVI), and (ii) AlphaEarth embeddings, whichintegrate multi-source Earth observation data into compact feature spaces designed to capture spectral, spatial, and temporal variability beyond manually engineered features. Results show that traditional spectral indices consistently outperform AlphaEarth embeddings across both modeling approaches. While ANN achieved the highest overall accuracy (65.8%), the use of spectral index–based predictors provided greater predictive performance than AlphaEarth embeddings in all cases. These findings suggest that, despite increasing interest in foundation-model embeddings, traditional spectral index feature engineering remains more effective for aboveground biomass estimation in young regenerating forest environments, with ANN offering a strong and accessible modeling framework. Although broader, multi-ecosystem comparisons may reveal contexts in which embeddings offer greater transferability, our results highlight the importance of benchmarking foundation-model predictors against simpler, locally calibrated alternatives at the spatial scales where many applied biomass mapping efforts are implemented.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2026.102113
FLARE author(s): Jody Brandt
Ruff, E. O., Clark, M., Alencar, L., Devenish, K., Loring, P. A., Nofyanza, S., Oldekop, J. A., Young, M. A., & Cinner, J. E. (2026). Reimagining land system science in seascapes. Landscape Ecology.
Abstract
Context Terrestrial concepts often guide the science and management of marine systems, as exhibited by the influence of landscape ecology on seascape ecology. However, the theoretical assumptions that inform these concepts have not been sufficiently interrogated within the distinct social-ecological realities of seascapes. Objective We call for a ‘sea system science’ that navigates the human dimensions of seascape change to advance the study and management of ocean spaces. Methods We evaluate two terrestrial concepts (intensification and expansion) that underpin common approaches to marine management. We establish key dimensions of theoretical (mis)alignment across agriculture, forestry, hunting, marine aquaculture, and capture fisheries. Results Seascape uses are substantively different from their landscape counterparts, though there is limited alignment between agriculture and marine aquaculture and between hunting and capture fisheries. We outline opportunities for sea system science to both interrogate terrestrial management concepts and develop an alternative management ontology tailored to seascapes. Conclusions A sea system science that engages with the human dimensions of seascape change and co-evolves with seascape ecology offers a pathway toward management approaches that are grounded in the social-ecological realities of marine spaces. Without closer attention to these dimensions, seascape ecology risks implementing terrestrial management practices that are procedurally feasible but ecologically and socioeconomically ineffective.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-026-02429-5
FLARE author(s): Johan Oldekop
Scherr, S. J., Granados, B., Reed, J., Ros-Tonen, M., & Sunderland, T. (2026). A home for integrated landscape research and practice: introducing CABI Multifunctional Landscapes. CABI Multifunctional Landscapes, 1(1).
Abstract
The interconnected global challenges of food and water insecurity, climate change, deforestation and biodiversity loss, land and resource degradation, economic instability, poverty, inequality and social fragmentation manifest strongly at the landscape scale. Sectoral approaches to resolving such challenges have been largely inadequate. Integrated landscape approaches (ILAs) offer a more holistic response through place-based planning and development paradigms, with multi-stakeholder landscape partnerships at their core. This editorial introduces CABI Multifunctional Landscapes, a newly launched international, open-access, peer-reviewed journal dedicated to advancing landscape research and practice. Launched through a partnership between CABI and 1000 Landscapes for 1 Billion People, the journal is designed to close the gap between a rapidly growing but fragmented ILA research literature and the extensive practical experience of landscape partnerships, which is rarely published in the scientific literature. Its scope spans evidence on the impact of ILAs on landscape goals, power dynamics and knowledge systems, enabling institutions such as finance and policy, tools for decision-making and monitoring, and issues of environmental and climate injustice, equity, inclusion and decolonization, across all biomes and production systems.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1079/cabimfl.2026.0001
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Setyowati, A. B., Pichon, F., Erbaugh, J. T., Gandonou, N., & Maru, G. (2026). Building Community Resilience in a Complex Setting: Opportunities for Papua New Guinea. World Bank.
Abstract
Papua New Guinea (PNG) faces growing climate and disaster risks that threaten its development aspirations, particularly in rural areas where most households rely on climate-sensitive livelihoods. At the same time, institutional fragility, limited service delivery, insecurity, and chronic underinvestment in adaptation constrain the country’s ability to respond effectively. This report examines opportunities to strengthen community resilience through locally led climate action (LLCA), with a focus on empowering local governments and communities to address climate risks while improving alignment with national climate priorities. The study combines desk reviews, stakeholder consultations, institutional analysis, climate finance assessment, and statistical and machine learning approaches to develop climate risk indices and climate risk profiles for Local-Level Governments (LLGs) across PNG. The analysis identifies significant spatial variation in climate risks driven by exposure to droughts, floods, landslides, extreme heat, tropical cyclones, and changing climatic conditions. Provinces including Hela, Enga, Northern (Oro), Gulf, Milne Bay, and the National Capital District face particularly high climate risks, while several high-risk areas also experience elevated levels of conflict, highlighting the need for conflict-sensitive adaptation approaches. The report develops nine climate risk profiles that provide a practical framework for targeting adaptation investments and designing locally appropriate interventions. Findings show that despite a robust national climate policy framework, implementation remains highly centralized and insufficiently connected to local institutions. Local-Level Governments, which are critical for delivering climate adaptation on the ground, often lack the capacity, financing, and technical support needed to fulfill their mandates. PNG also faces a substantial adaptation finance gap and receives among the lowest levels of climate finance per capita in the Pacific. Traditional support systems, including the wantok network, indigenous and traditional knowledge, churches, and community organizations, continue to play an important role in strengthening resilience but are increasingly strained by overlapping climate, conflict, and socioeconomic pressures. The report concludes that building resilience in PNG requires a shift toward locally led, conflict-sensitive climate action that strengthens local governance, improves access to climate information and finance, invests in climate-resilient livelihoods, and enhances coordination across levels of government. Existing community-driven platforms, such as the Rural Service Delivery Project (RSDP), provide promising mechanisms for scaling climate adaptation while fostering inclusive participation, social cohesion, and sustainable development outcomes. By aligning national climate ambitions with local realities and empowering communities as agents of change, PNG can strengthen its capacity to manage climate and disaster risks and build a more resilient future.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1596/45583
FLARE author(s): J.T. Erbaugh
Shin, S., Okello, O., Otim, J., Lehmann, J., Fiorella, K., Waldman, K., & Liao, C. (2026). Carbon finance as climate adaptation depends on smallholder livelihood contexts in Uganda. Communications Sustainability, 1(1).
Abstract
Nature-based solutions in voluntary carbon markets have become increasingly important instruments for financing climate adaptation and mitigation, yet limited evidence exists on whether and how these mechanisms enable smallholder adaptation. This research examines smallholder participation in agroforestry-based carbon projects as a climate adaptation pathway and investigates the decision-making dynamics shaping participation in rural Uganda. Here we show that participation decisions depend on financial, social, institutional, and livelihood contexts. Qualitative evidence demonstrates that identical compensation levels are perceived differently depending on farmers’ available resources and risks, revealing that adaptation costs are relational rather than uniform. Quantitative analysis indicates a context-specific compensation benchmark of 54 USD per ha per year. Participation likelihood increases with higher compensation (1% per additional dollar), prior agroforestry experience (22%), climate disaster exposure (14%), and trust in climate policy (6%) whereas price uncertainty reduces participation likelihood (4%). These findings suggest predictable payments, floor prices, adaptation co-benefits, and institutional support for equitable and durable climate-resilient development in rural communities.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44458-026-00151-6
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Sunderland, T., & Wood, P. (2026). Greater international co-operation is needed to achieve the UN’s global forest goals. The Conversation.
Abstract
The Global Forest Goals Report 2026, to which the authors contributed, was released at the UN Forum on Forests in New York and represents an urgent call to action. Compiled from voluntary reports contributed by 48 nations representing more than half of all global forests, it takes stock of progress towards the six Global Forest Goals and 26 associated targets of the UN Strategic Plan for Forests. Progress since the goals were set in 2017 has been uneven: only seven of the 26 targets have been broadly met, 17 are partly met, and two - reversing deforestation and eradicating extreme poverty for forest-dependent people - are completely off track. Between 2015 and 2025 the world lost more than 40 million hectares of forest, including 16 million hectares of primary forest. Gains have been made in protected areas, long-term forest management plans and monitoring systems, but development assistance fell 23% from 2024 to 2025, private financial institutions provided US$8.9 trillion to companies with the highest deforestation risk, and environmentally harmful agricultural subsidies reached roughly US$406 billion annually against just US$84 billion in finance flows to protect forests. The authors argue the tools, knowledge and policy frameworks exist, and that innovative financing, stronger institutions and cross-sectoral international co-operation are essential to meet the goals.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.64628/aam.u76njcfcc
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Vansant, E., den Braber, B., Hall, C., Kamoto, J., Lupafya, E., McMullin, S., Muskambo, S., Swirah, R., Mkunkha, L., & Rasmussen, L. V. (2026). Restoring indigenous trees can help combat malnutrition in Africa. PNAS Nexus, 5(6), pgag156-pgag156.
Abstract
Across African countries and contexts, there is robust evidence of how forests and trees can support people's diets. In particular, indigenous food trees are an important source of micronutrient-rich fruits, leaves, nuts, and seeds. Yet in large-scale landscape restoration projects, these species are often overlooked in favor of exotic, fast-growing tree species-limiting the potential of restoration initiatives to co-address biodiversity loss and malnutrition. With local practitioners in Malawi, we explore challenges to and opportunities for better integration of indigenous food trees in landscape restoration projects. We argue that scientists, policymakers, and restoration practitioners should focus on three primary domains for greater knowledge management and capacity building: (i) tree propagation, (ii) improving seedling survival rates, and (iii) value chain development for tree-based foods. Targeted support for incorporating indigenous food trees in these areas can help promote synergies between human and ecological health in natural resource management agendas.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgag156
FLARE author(s): Laura Vang Rasmussen
Wang, C., Liu, Q., Sun, X., Zhao, D., Liao, C., Bogaert, J., Ren, Y., & Yang, P. (2026). Landscape optimization trade-offs and security boundary identification under multiple scenarios: balancing food production and ecological protection for regional sustainability. Landscape Ecology.
Abstract
To address the increasing food demand, it is often necessary to directly enhance food production through strategic land-use adjustments or cropland expansion. However, these strategies often lead to a series of negative ecological impacts, including biodiversity loss and increased water consumption. It is essential to explore how food production and ecological protection can be balanced under different decision-making objectives. By quantifying the trade-off boundaries between food production and multiple ecological indicators − representing the frontiers where gains in one objective require losses in another − and integrating practical constraints, landscape optimization security zones were identified. These zones are the areas where ecological indicators can improve without compromising, and potentially even enhancing, food production. The results can inform spatial planning practice for balancing agricultural productivity and ecological protection in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region. This study developed a novel landscape pattern optimization approach that generates two-dimensional trade-off boundaries and identifies trade-off thresholds. Under multiple scenarios, considering the baseline of food security and ecological protection thresholds, we identified landscape optimization security zones through the trade-off boundaries. While the length and curvature of the optimized landscape trade-off boundary curves varied across different scenarios, the overall concave-convex trends remained consistent. Achieving Pareto optimality under food production constraint scenario was associated with a 21.6% reduction in water consumption while without compromising grain yield. Additionally, net carbon sink and habitat quality improve by 25.0% and 14.8%, respectively, compared to the current trade-offs. The overlap between landscape optimization security zones and areas where agricultural and ecological benefits could be enhanced was only partial, highlighting distinct functional roles. The landscape optimization security zones identified provides a structured framework for maximizing the co-benefits of food production and ecological protection, and offers policy-relevant insights for the multifunctional and sustainable planning of agricultural landscapes and natural habitats. And policy design should carefully account for the interaction between agricultural and ecological objectives, as increasing regulatory intensity may limit flexibility in achieving coordinated sustainability outcomes.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-026-02407-x
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Watts, M., Cooper, G. S., Purushotham, A., Shankar, B., Bhogadi, S., Harris-Fry, H., Kadiyala, S., Gupta, A., Sandalinas, F., Bajaj, S., Bhushan, N., Kumar, V., Chhatre, A., Mamidi, R. S., & Fivian, E. (2026). The interplay between the market food environment and barriers to healthy diets for women in rural Bihar, India. Health & Place, 98, 103618.
Abstract
Understanding the barriers that women in rural, low-income settings face in acquiring nutrient-dense foods (NDFs) is fundamental to improving health. Most existing evidence comes from quantitative studies. However, complementary qualitative insights can deepen understanding of individuals' lived realities and inform contextually relevant strategies to address these barriers. We qualitatively examined how gender norms and other socioeconomic inequalities shape women's interactions with their market food environment for acquiring NDFs in rural Bihar, India's poorest and most undernourished state. We also considered men's experiences to understand gender differences in barriers. We sampled 12 villages across two districts (Bhojpur and Samastipur) and conducted 12 focus groups with women and 76 interviews with women and their spouses. A complementary survey was also conducted to contextualise our qualitative findings. The unaffordability of NDFs, caused by low income and high prices, was the main barrier to acquisition. This barrier was most pronounced for the poorest and was greatest during seasonal price spikes. Women faced unique affordability challenges due to their exclusion from markets, driven by restrictive gender norms that stigmatise their participation and view markets as unsafe spaces. Consequently, women relied on expensive local sources or travelled longer distances to more distant markets, diminishing food budgets. Affordability barriers for the poorest and lower-caste women were compounded by pay discrimination and gender norms that restricted women's livelihood opportunities. Our insights suggest that providing women with cash transfers, alongside the development of safer, more inclusive markets, could improve women's acquisition of NDFs and their nutritional health.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2026.103618
FLARE author(s): Ashwini Chhatre
Wilmsen, C., Hajjar, R., Sandoval, G. F., Huber-Stearns, H., Downey, J., & Davis, E. J. (2026). Racial capitalism and the duality of exploitation in forest labor contracting. Forest Policy and Economics, 189, 103847.
Abstract
Studies of labor markets in forestry have consistently found that white workers tend to fill better-paying, higher-quality jobs than workers of color. Such segmentation of labor markets is well documented in other industries and has been theorized as a general feature of racial capitalism. Although it is widely recognized that racial capitalism marginalizes entrepreneurs of color, scholarship on racial capitalism has generally focused on the precarity of workers. We interviewed workers, business owners, and forestry professionals in southern Oregon and northern California to investigate how political and economic structures shape income equity, contracting opportunities, and career mobility among workers and contractors in the forestry services industry. We found that there were not only segmented labor markets, but also a racially segmented contracting market. In what we call the “duality of exploitation,” Latino employers were placed in the position of being simultaneously the exploited and the expropriators. Immigration policy in the 1980s enabled many undocumented forest workers to gain legal status and become forestry contractors. Through barriers in federal contracting, these employers are themselves exploited while simultaneously expropriating surplus value from their vulnerable immigrant and viséed employees. Our findings elaborate existing theorizations of racial capitalism by suggesting that state policies and practices produce subject positions in which the differential distribution of power and resources fosters the exploitation of marginalized workers by similarly marginalized employers.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2026.103847
FLARE author(s): Reem Hajjar
York, N. D. L., Naimado, W., Enns, C., Bersaglio, B., Kaunga, M. O., Larpei, J., Mukiri, V., Oreheya, J., Silole, V., & Oldekop, J. A. (2026). Biocultural conservation as an alternative pathway for conservation: A case study of the Inclusive Conservation Initiative in northern Kenya. People and Nature, 8(7), 2353-2367.
Abstract
The Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) aims to conserve 30% of the planet by 2030, yet mounting evidence indicates that current methods for preventing biodiversity loss are insufficient and often intensify unjust conditions for Indigenous Peoples and local communities. Alternative models have been proposed to deal with this crisis, including strict, community, neoliberal and convivial conservation. Biocultural conservation is now re‐emerging as a potential pathway to achieve the GBF target. Yet there is limited understanding of whether biocultural approaches are actually transforming how conservation is done in practice. We address this question using a case study of the Inclusive Conservation Initiative (ICI) in northern Kenya. Drawing on qualitative data collected over 3 months in 2024, including 26 interviews and participatory observation, this paper explores if and how biocultural conservation moves beyond mainstream conservation models. We argue that biocultural conservation offers an alternative model for conservation which moves beyond mainstream conservation models in northern Kenya in three key ways. Firstly, it recognises communities' biocultural practices as the basis for conservation. Secondly, it adopts a more‐than‐human rights approach, and thirdly, it speaks to pastoralist communities' diverse ways of knowing and relating to nature. Our findings demonstrate that biocultural conservation subverts the goals of mainstream conservation to protect nature from people by approaching conservation as a way to protect people's relationships with nature. It moves beyond mainstream approaches by amplifying communities' own biocultural practices, rights and ways of knowing and relating to nature. On this basis, we argue that biocultural conservation provides a distinct alternative pathway which can support communities to do conservation that aligns with their own worldviews, values and goals. Policy implications . Our analysis reveals that biocultural conservation provides a unique pathway for conservation which can better support rights to autonomy and decision‐making for communities. While our research is centred on northern Kenya, the findings have broader relevance for advancing alternative imaginaries for conservation and ensuring that conservation supports people and nature to adapt and thrive in a changing world. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.70354
FLARE author(s): Johan Oldekop
2025
Amadu, F. O. (2025). The Forests of Liberia: A Pathway to Poverty Alleviation and Food Security. Scientia.
Abstract
In Liberia, half of the population lives within 2.5 kms of a forest. Many households rely on these delicate ecosystems to support themselves. A recent study by Dr Festus O Amadu at Florida Gulf Coast University and Dr Daniel Miller at the University of Notre Dame sees sustainable forest management as a positive force in improving livelihoods and environmental outcomes in Liberia. The authors have produced a landmark national analysis of how participation in the ‘forest sector’ impacts Liberian households – providing policymakers with the evidence they need to prioritise development programmes.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.33548/scientia1154
FLARE author(s): Festus Amadu
Amadu, F. O., & McNamara, P. E. (2025). Agricultural stakeholder panels and lead farmer visits: Evidence from Malawi. World Development Perspectives, 39, 100716.
Abstract
Agricultural extension is critical to economic transformation in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Yet, local extension services remain weak, despite several decades of international aid aimed at improving extension services in the region. Agricultural Stakeholder Panels (ASPs) are a demand-side extension approach designed to improve rural extension services by enhancing farmer interaction with local extension agents. In Malawi, the ASP approach has been in rural communities as part of the national extension policy for more than two decades. Yet, most ASPs were either completely dysfunctional, partially operational, or somewhat ineffective in reaching their clientele communities. Thus, in 2015, the US Agency for International Development (USAID) funded the Strengthening Agricultural and Nutrition Extension (SANE) program to support the government of Malawi in implementing ASPs more carefully and rigorously, and thereby improve agricultural extension services in the country. However, empirical evidence of the impacts of functional ASPs in terms of improving extension services remains unexplored. We respond to this gap by estimating the impacts of the ASP approach on agricultural extension services using lead farmer visits as a proxy. We apply an endogenous treatment effect regression to original survey data from a sample of 2134 households across 22 districts in Malawi. We found positive and statistically significant impacts of functional ASPs on lead farmer visits in 2018: Farmers associated with such ASPs received eight extension visits from lead farmers compared to other farmers per year, a significant result with crucial implications for improving extension services in Malawi. The result implies that effective ASPs can improve the performance of extension agents, and thereby demonstrates the importance of such policies in improving agricultural extension systems in Malawi, similar contexts elsewhere in SSA, and beyond.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2025.100716
FLARE author(s): Festus Amadu
Anandi, C. A., Ros-Tonen, M., Reed, J., & Sunderland, T. (2025). Indicators to assess viable entry points for implementing landscape approaches. Ecology and Society, 30(4).
Abstract
Integrated landscape approaches are gaining momentum, but there is a lack of evidence on how to get started. Bringing multiple stakeholders together to negotiate trade-offs between conservation and development, as well as competing land uses, is an ambitious goal involving high transaction costs. There is a need to identify entry or leverage points for implementing landscape approaches and assess their potential. Although principles and criteria for landscape approaches are available, few studies provide concrete indicators to assess the viability of such entry points. This paper addresses this gap. Drawing on a systematic literature review and expert insights, we propose a set of indicators aligned with principles related to foundational conditions, stakeholder engagement, orientation toward landscape outcomes, negotiation processes, and learning, monitoring, and evaluation. These indicators can be used to assess the potential and limitations of landscape initiatives to evolve into full landscape approaches.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.5751/es-16490-300437
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Anderson, T. G., Pons, D., Taylor, M., Xuruc, A., Rodríguez Salvatierra, H. H., Guido, Z., Sullivan, J. A., Liverman, D., & Anchukaitis, K. J. (2025). Complexity and mediating factors in farmers’ climate perceptions and agricultural adaptation strategies in the Guatemalan Dry Corridor. Climatic Change, 178(7).
Abstract
Projected precipitation decreases due to anthropogenic climate change will have serious consequences for the millions of households in Central America that rely on rainfed agriculture. However, a signal of anthropogenic climate change is not yet clear in regional precipitation data despite observations from many farmers throughout Central America who report recent changes in rainfall and associated losses to crop production and food security. Given the substantial variability in regional climate and its influence on agricultural outcomes, it is important to study uncertainties in both climate and social data and their implications for farming households. We use a combination of satellite-based climate data and over 700 household surveys from two departments in Guatemala to better understand rainy season climate patterns over recent decades. Climate data reveal variable trends depending on the time period and location. Farmers' perceptions of rainfall trends vary widely and we identify factors that may contribute to this lack of consensus. We also assess how farmers' observations and household characteristics influence agricultural practices. Our findings suggest that regional differences, including off-farm income sources, mediate farmers' modification to their agricultural practices, irrespective of whether a trend in rainfall is perceived or not. However, adjustments to agricultural maize practices are statistically significantly associated with perceived rainfall changes where there is greater dependence on income derived from smallholder agriculture. Reconciling household- and community-level perceptions with observed and anticipated climate variability and change is therefore critical in these regions to ensure appropriate adaptation interventions and strategies.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-025-03978-5
FLARE author(s): Jonathan Sullivan
Asubonteng, K. O., Baatuuwie, B. N., Tom-Dery, D., Zida, M., Bayala, E., Yves, L., Ickowitz, A., Sunderland, T., Reed, J., Amponsah, A., Issaka, Y. B., & Asante, W. (2025). Spatial Analysis of Community Resource Management Effects on Landscape Structure in the Western Wildlife Corridor, Ghana. SSRN Electronic Journal.
Abstract
Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) is an approach towards realising equitable governance, biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development in landscapes. Studies focus on governance dimensions such as institutions, inclusivity, power and conflicting interests, with little attention given to how the landscape structure respond to the changes brought by CBNRM. A more holistic understanding of the dynamics, drivers of change and spatial patterns in the landscape is required to assess whether targeted interventions are achieving landscape goals. Community Resource Management Areas (CREMAs) were established in Ghana to restore forests while delivering nature-based service to people. Addressing this gap, the study assesses spatial dynamics in the structure (composition and configuration) of Sanyiga Kasena Gavara Kara CREMA between 2014 and 2022 by analysing land transition matrix from a post classification change detection and landscape metrics. The results showed that although closed woodlands increased by 592 ha, their future is not guaranteed as open woodlands, which are the source of the next generation of closed woodlands, suffered substantial deforestation (9816 ha). The largest land class beneficiary was grasslands which expanded because of deforestation and cropland conversion. The mosaics prior to CREMA establishment have further fragmented as evidenced by the quadrupling of patch numbers coupled with declining mean patch size, largest patch index and the aggregation index. The findings suggests that SKGK CREMA is not realising its ecological objectives as all the indicators points to a worsening environmental situation.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5737564
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Asuk, S. A., Wayman, J. P., Sadler, J. P., Pugh, T. A. M., Matthews, T. J., Ebu, V. T., Phillips, O. L., Lewis, S., Sonké, B., Talbot, J., Comiskey, J., Zemagho, L., Ojo, L., Begne, S., Taedoumg, H., Sunderland, T., Hubau, W., Droissart, V., Qie, L., .. Kettridge, N. (2025). Human and Environmental Factors Shape Tree Species Assemblages in West African Tropical Forests. Diversity and Distributions, 31(8).
Abstract
Aim This study investigated how human activities and local environmental variables shape tree assemblages (species composition in a defined location), comparing their effects on edible and inedible tree species. Three hypotheses were tested: (1) Environmental filtering impacts spatial beta‐diversity more than dispersal limitation; (2) human activities significantly influence regional tree beta‐diversity; and (3) predictors of beta‐diversity differ between edible and inedible species. Location Tropical forest in Nigeria and Cameroon in West and Central Africa. Methods Tree data were collected between 2002 and 2019 from 66 forest plots. Species were categorised as edible and inedible by humans using interviews and online databases. Pairwise beta‐diversity (partitioned into total beta‐diversity and turnover) between plots was analysed using Generalised Dissimilarity Models (GDMs) with geographical distance, plot‐specific variables (forest composition, climate, elevation, stem density, human influence indicators), and human influence indicators (distance to closest human presence [DCHP], and nearest anthropogenic edges [DNAE]) as predictors. Results The dataset included 236 edible species (11,097 stems) and 472 inedible species (17,202 stems), with high species turnover (> 90%) dominating beta‐diversity patterns. Due to local plot‐level factors, environmental filtering (deviance explained for all species: 37.4%, edible: 18.9% and inedible: 31.4%) exerted greater influence on species assemblages than geographical distance alone. Beta‐diversity drivers differed between edible and inedible species: elevation strongly influenced turnover in inedible species, whereas forest composition significantly shaped the assemblage of edible species, reflecting patterns of human‐mediated species selection and species dominance. Human presence impacted the overall beta‐diversity of inedible species but only influenced the turnover component of edible species. Main Conclusions Tree assemblages in the Nigeria–Cameroon forest region were primarily structured by local environmental conditions and human activities rather than by dispersal limitation. Effective conservation should incorporate sustainable human activities and traditional ecological knowledge, with further research needed to explore the long‐term anthropogenic impacts on these forests.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.70075
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Barber, C., Cruz, J., Graves, S. J., Bohlman, S. A., Zuidema, P. A., Asner, G. P., Carignan, A., Vasquez, V., Brandt, J., & Caughlin, T. T. (2025). Large, isolated trees have higher mortality than smaller trees in forest fragments across a tropical pastoral landscape. Ecological Applications, 35(4), e70046.
Abstract
Agricultural tree cover is declining globally, including the loss of large, scattered trees that function as keystone structures. Understanding the drivers of agricultural tree loss could help prevent further declines. However, the drivers of agricultural tree mortality vary across scales, from individual trees to landscapes, complicating efforts to quantify mortality risk. We applied high-resolution remote sensing and multi-method occupancy models to test hypotheses of drivers of tree mortality in a pastoral landscape of Southwestern Panama. Our approach enabled us to identify individual tree mortality across a >20,000 ha area, encompassing a wide range of land use intensity. Neighboring tree cover was the strongest predictor of mortality, with a higher probability of death for isolated trees relative to trees with many neighbors. Landscape-level covariates also predicted mortality risk, including higher mortality closer to roads and in parcels with larger area. These results implicate land use intensity as a primary driver of agricultural tree loss in our study area. At the individual tree level, we found that larger trees were more likely to die than smaller trees. Our study suggests that the trees with high ecosystem service value in a fragmented landscape-large, isolated trees-also face the highest mortality risk. Supporting agricultural practices that maintain trees in pastures is likely to decrease tree mortality in our study site, broadly representative of cattle ranching landscapes across Latin America. Our workflow could be implemented in other landscapes globally to prioritize agricultural tree conservation, paving the way for increased tree survival and improved ecosystem services.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.70046
FLARE author(s): Jody Brandt
Bayala, E. R. C., Zida, M., Asubonteng, K. O., Ros-Tonen, M. A. F., Reed, J., Siangulube, F. S., Ickowitz, A., Djoudi, H., & Sunderland, T. (2025). Assessing CREMAs’ Capacity to Govern Landscape Resources in the Western Wildlife Corridor of Northern Ghana. Environmental Management, 75(5), 1055-1070.
Abstract
Ghana initiated community resource management areas (CREMAs) as a community-based natural management approach to give local communities the right and power to manage natural resources within their territorial boundaries. The expectation is that communities and their environment would prosper through more equitable landscape governance and sustainable use of natural resources. However, the challenges to achieving full functionality of CREMA and expected results, particularly in the Western Wildlife Corridor in northern Ghana, raise questions about the governance actors' capacity. Therefore, this study aims to assess the capacity of actors to take ownership of and lead the governance processes implied by the CREMA approach. Based on focus group discussions and individual interviews, we found that the capacities of the CREMA governance bodies are weak to implement the CREMA approach effectively. The lack of knowledge and technical skills to support multi-actor processes, the weak collaboration between actors, and the lack of sustainable financial inflows and livelihood support are key challenges to be addressed for better CREMA performance. Despite these constraints, local actors' enthusiasm and willingness to engage more actively in the governance of their landscape constitute an opportunity for an improved implementation of the CREMA approach. We suggest that initiatives to strengthen the technical and financial capacities of governance bodies and raise awareness among the local population are necessary to improve the functioning and performance of CREMAs. In addition, actions to improve the livelihoods of local communities will enhance the mobilization and engagement of social groups in the implementation of the CREMA concept.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-025-02155-9
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Bennett, N., Dilling, L., Bailey, K. M., & Carrico, A. R. (2025). Insights into how Community Wildfire Protection Plans act as drivers of wildfire preparedness. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 69(9), 2697-2718.
Abstract
Wildfire poses an increasing threat to communities in the Western US, driven by climate change and rising human settlement in the wildland-urban interface (WUI). It is imperative that communities in fire-prone areas become “fire-adapted” to safely manage their risk. Community Wildfire Protection Plans (CWPPs) constitute an approach by the federal government to enable communities to collaboratively plan for, and adapt to, wildfire. How well these plans have enabled at-risk rural Colorado communities to become “fire-adapted” since their development is still debated. Through interviews with key informants, we explored the role of CWPPs in building fire-adapted Colorado WUI communities since their development. We found that CWPPs are most effective in communities with certain characteristics that either necessitate a CWPP or create an enabling environment for plan success. Overall, our results highlight the importance of community context in adaptation planning and that CWPPs are not a “one size fits all” solution for WUI communities.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2025.2526610
FLARE author(s): Karen Bailey
Bennett, N., St John, B., Carrico, A. R., & Bailey, K. M. (2025). Outcome efficacy and responsibility as correlates of household wildfire adaptation action in Boulder, CO. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 108, 102836.
Abstract
Growing wildfire risks are increasing losses and damages to wildland-urban interface households in the American West. In Colorado, the December 2021 Marshall Fire destroyed over 1000 suburban homes and became the most destructive fire in the state's history and the 10th costliest in US history. Fortunately, homeowner adaptation action can play a significant role in preventing structural damage or loss that can come from a wildfire. Yet, action is more effective when coordinated across a community, since the nature of wildfire as a hazard means that one homeowner's wildfire risk is informed not only by their own actions but also those taken by their neighbors. Across the summer and fall of 2022, we distributed a household survey and conducted focus groups in the City of Boulder, which was near but not within the burn area of the Marshall Fire. Using multilevel regression analysis, we explored the role of social and cognitive factors in motivating both the number of adopted adaptation actions and the adoption of specific actions at the household scale. Our analysis points to the role of outcome efficacy and personal responsibility as correlates of homeowner adaptation action to wildfire. Our focus group data lend nuance and insight into our model results and highlight the role of extreme weather and perceptions of community inaction as drivers of low outcome efficacy beliefs and household inaction. Our findings point to the importance of collective action for wildfire as a tool to increase outcome efficacy perceptions and drive action at the household level.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2025.102836
FLARE author(s): Karen Bailey
Benzeev, R., Bráz, C., Lyons, C. S., & Newton, P. (2025). The impact of land tenure on deforestation and reforestation in Quilombola territories from 1985 to 2020 in Brazil. World Development Sustainability, 6, 100221.
Abstract
• We analyzed land tenure and forest outcomes in Quilombola territories in Brazil. • We found no significant relationships in Quilombola territories across 18 model types. • Models included analyses of deforestation, reforestation, and forest cover change. • Our study reveals knowledge and data gaps relating to Quilombolas and land rights. Land tenure for Indigenous peoples and local communities in forested areas can improve livelihoods and protect forests while recognizing territorial and human rights. Yet little is known about the relationship between land tenure and deforestation within Quilombola territories (QTs) of Afro-descendant populations in Brazil. Understanding these relationships is important given that only 176 of the more than 5,900 QTs have been recognized with legal land tenure rights throughout Brazil. In this study, we conducted a difference-in-differences analysis to estimate the average treatment effect of land tenure on rates of deforestation, reforestation, and net forest cover change from 1985 to 2020 in 313 QTs across all of Brazil as well as 104 more specifically in the Brazilian Amazon and 81 in the Atlantic Forest biome. We additionally tested changes in forest outcomes before and after an earlier stage of the tenure process (incomplete tenure). We found no evidence that formalized land tenure had influenced forest outcomes in QTs. As the first rigorous analysis of the effect of formalized tenure specifically in QTs, our study also reveals several primary knowledge and data gaps relating to Quilombolas . We emphasize the need for much more data to be systematically collected and disseminated on QTs, as well as the need for more research to be conducted to fully understand how tenure influences forest cover in QTs. We highlight that there are considerable opportunities to improve the state of research and understanding about rights, tenure, and forest conservation among Quilombolas , as an important but largely-overlooked (in terms of research) category of traditional peoples in Brazil. We additionally contribute to a growing body of literature on the role of rights-based approaches to conservation.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wds.2025.100221
FLARE author(s): Peter Newton
Bosma, C., Hein, L., & Miller, D. C. (2025). International climate and biodiversity funding: does allocation follow need in Global South countries?. World Development, 196, 107160.
Abstract
Tackling the interconnected climate and biodiversity crises requires major flows of financial resources directed to areas of greatest need. Funding is required not only to mitigate climate change but also to adapt to it while stemming biodiversity decline. Acute need, scarce financial resources, and legacies of injustice in countries of the Global South mean international funding must be a key source of support for climate adaptation and biodiversity conservation. Yet knowledge of international funding for these two objectives remains fragmented, with little systematic analysis across them over time. We address this gap by analyzing international development funding for climate adaptation and biodiversity investments over the past decade from both traditional grants and financial return-based instruments, an increasingly prominent approach. Using two-stage Cragg regression models, we first assess whether funding is prioritized to countries with the greatest need and then compare funder use of grant versus return-based instruments. Funding need is defined based on theoretically informed indicators and analyzed using publicly available datasets. We find that funders using grants are more likely to provide funding to countries more vulnerable to climate change and where biodiversity is under greater threat. By contrast, we find opposite or non-significant relationships for return-based funding, indicating that such instruments often do not flow to where they are needed most. Our joint assessment of the increasingly blurred climate and biodiversity finance landscapes advances scholarship by bringing these two domains together within the same analytical framework to provide new insights on international development finance allocation. Our results highlight the importance of harnessing synergies between climate adaptation and biodiversity to enhance co-benefits. Study results also underscore the continued value of grant funding, especially for countries with the greatest funding need where return-based investments are less likely, and the need to explore ways return-based instruments might succeed in high-need countries.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2025.107160
FLARE author(s): Daniel Miller
Brumberg, H., Hegwood, M., Eichhorst, W., LoPresti, A., Erbaugh, J. T., & Kroeger, T. (2025). Global analysis of constraints to natural climate solution implementation. PNAS Nexus, 4(6), pgaf173-pgaf173.
Abstract
Natural climate solutions (NCS) could provide over one-third of the climate mitigation needed between now and 2030 to limit warming below 2°C and support the Sustainable Development Goals. However, large disparities persist between the estimated biophysical climate mitigation potential (CMP) of NCS and their actual implementation. Social, political, informational, and economic factors contribute to this gap, but the spatial distribution of these constraints and their impacts on different NCS pathways remains poorly understood. Understanding these constraints is especially important due to the large uncertainties in NCS CMP and growing research on spatial prioritization of NCS, often based only on biophysical criteria. We identified and mapped nonbiophysical constraints to NCS implementation efficacy by conducting a systematic review of recent peer-reviewed literature across 10 high-CMP NCS pathways. From 1,821 papers, we identified 352 that provided 2,480 observations of 39 unique constraints from 135 countries. We mapped the spatial distribution of these constraints and analyzed patterns across NCS pathways and geographic classifications. Lack of funding, insufficient information on NCS management, and ineffective policies emerged as the most common constraints globally. However, each pathway and geography faced a distinct suite of interrelated constraints spanning multiple categories. These findings highlight the need for context-specific, equitable solutions, likely requiring transdisciplinary approaches and cross-sectoral collaborations. The results could also help increase accuracy of NCS CMP estimates. We discuss how adaptive management may be used for NCS initiatives at any scale to proactively diagnose co-occurring constraints at each implementation phase and to develop integrated, place-based solutions.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf173
FLARE author(s): J.T. Erbaugh
Cannon, J. (2025). Resilient forests are key to ecological, economic and social resilience, report finds. UEA Digital Repository (University of East Anglia).
Abstract
The vital role forests play in providing habitat for biodiversity, storing carbon and supporting cultures also buttresses global society economically and socially, according to a new report by authors at the International Union of Forest Research Organizations. But in making those vital connections, the authors also bring together data showing how humanity’s cumulative negative impacts […]
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.66709/news-300545
FLARE author(s): Rachel Carmenta
Oliveras Menor, I., Prat-Guitart, N., Spadoni, G. L., Hsu, A., Fernandes, P. M., Puig-Gironès, R., Ascoli, D., Bilbao, B. A., Bacciu, V., Brotons, L., Carmenta, R., de-Miguel, S., Gonçalves, L. G., Humphrey, G., Ibarnegaray, V., Jones, M. W., Machado, M. S., Millán, A., de Morais Falleiro, R., Mouillot, F., Pinto, C., Pons, P., Regos, A., Senra de Oliveira, M., … Armenteras Pascual, D. (2024). Integrated fire management as an adaptation and mitigation strategy to altered fire regimes. Communications Earth & Environment, 6, 202
Abstract
Altered fire regimes are a global challenge, increasingly exacerbated by climate change, which modifies fire weather and prolongs fire seasons. These changing conditions heighten the vulnerability of ecosystems and human populations to the impacts of wildfires on the environment, society, and the economy. The rapid pace of these changes exposes significant gaps in knowledge, tools, technology, and governance structures needed to adopt informed, holistic approaches to fire management that address both current and future challenges. Integrated Fire Management is an approach that combines fire prevention, response, and recovery while integrating ecological, socio-economic, and cultural factors into management strategies. However, Integrated Fire Management remains highly context-dependent, encompassing a wide array of fire management practices with varying degrees of ecological and societal integration. This review explores Integrated Fire Management as both an adaptation and mitigation strategy for altered fire regimes. It provides an overview of the progress and challenges associated with implementing Integrated Fire Management across different regions worldwide. The review also proposes five core objectives and outlines a roadmap of incremental steps for advancing Integrated Fire Management as a strategy to adapt to ongoing and future changes in fire regimes, thereby maximizing its potential to benefit both people and nature.
Carmenta, R., Lima, M. G. B., Choiruzzad, S. A. B., Dawson, N., Estrada-Carmona, N., Hicks, C., Kallis, G., Nana, E., Killick, E., Lees, A., Martin, A., Pascual, U., Pettorelli, N., Reed, J., Turnhout, E., Vira, B., Zaehringer, J. G., & Barlow, J. (2025). Unveiling pervasive assumptions: moving beyond the poverty-biodiversity loss association in conservation. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 74, 101537.
Abstract
This paper reflects on the continued persistence of the idea in conservation research and practice that poverty drives biodiversity loss (the poverty-biodiversity loss association [PBLA]). We draw on evidence to show how the PBLA has proven resistant to counter-evidence and is particularly visible at local-level implementation, and is often implicit in conservation strategies. We untangle three underlying reasons that help to explain why the PBLA has persisted under a verisimilitude (seeming truth) that can leave it hiding in plain sight. In doing so, we offer conservation science and practice the means to recognise and thereby remedy this thinking where it exists, and in so doing, advance conservation towards its aims of equitable and effective delivery. We outline how the Connected Conservation model may be better equipped to challenge the disproportionate role of wealth in biodiversity decline whilst empowering biodiversity stewards and their plural knowledge, values and governance systems.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2025.101537
FLARE author(s): Rachel Carmenta
Castle, S. E., Miller, D. C., & Wardropper, C. B. (2025). Mapping the social-ecological suitability of agroforestry in the US Midwest. Environmental Research Letters, 20(2)
Abstract
Agroforestry practices offer the potential to increase agricultural sustainability, but their adoption remains limited, especially in some of the world’s most highly productive regions like the United States (US) Midwest. Integrated assessment of the environmental, social, and economic factors that determine agroforestry’s potential benefits and social acceptability is needed to effectively target agroforestry expansion. To meet this need, we used geospatial multi-criteria decision analysis to map agroforestry’s suitability across the US Midwest. We mapped priority areas where agroforestry is expected to reduce the risk of environmental degradation, provide productive tree growth, and be socially and economically viable. We show that integrating social and economic factors dramatically shifted priorities compared to an environmental-only suitability assessment. Using COMET-Planner, we estimated that expanding agroforestry to the top 5% most suitable land from our analysis (totaling 18.3 million acres) has the potential to store 43 [29–58] Mt of CO2e per year over the business-as-usual scenario. Our integrated approach can help stakeholders identify target areas for agroforestry and provides a theoretical foundation for interdisciplinary suitability mapping that can be adapted for use in other global regions.
Chang, C. H., Cook‐Patton, S. C., Erbaugh, J. T., Lu, L., Masuda, Y. J., Molnár, I., Papp, D., & Robinson, B. E. (2025). New opportunities and challenges for conservation evidence synthesis from advances in natural language processing. Conservation Biology, 39(2), e14464.
Abstract
Addressing global environmental conservation problems requires rapidly translating natural and conservation social science evidence to policy-relevant information. Yet, exponential increases in scientific production combined with disciplinary differences in reporting research make interdisciplinary evidence syntheses especially challenging. Ongoing developments in natural language processing (NLP), such as large language models, machine learning (ML), and data mining, hold the promise of accelerating cross-disciplinary evidence syntheses and primary research. The evolution of ML, NLP, and artificial intelligence (AI) systems in computational science research provides new approaches to accelerate all stages of evidence synthesis in conservation social science. To show how ML, language processing, and AI can help automate and scale evidence syntheses in conservation social science, we describe methods that can automate querying the literature, process large and unstructured bodies of textual evidence, and extract parameters of interest from scientific studies. Automation can translate to other research agendas in conservation social science by categorizing and labeling data at scale, yet there are major unanswered questions about how to use hybrid AI-expert systems ethically and effectively in conservation.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14464
FLARE author(s): J.T. Erbaugh
Christmann, T., Cjuno‐Turpo, I., López‐Aranda, M., Wilson, S. J., Cuni‐Sanchez, A., Malhi, Y., Ramirez, A., Rondán, V., Medina Castro, F., Mamani, M., Recharte, J., Arenas, M., Aucca Chutas, C., Carrión Moreno, O. A., Gonzalez Cabello, F. B., & Oliveras Menor, I. (2025). ‘Sowing and harvesting water’: Revisiting forest restoration in the Peruvian Andes through a multi‐stakeholder analysis. People and Nature, 7(3), 631-652.
Abstract
Efforts to restore Peru's megadiverse Andean Forests are rapidly growing. While ecological determinants for restoration success are well known, knowledge on the socio‐economic and governance conditions that allow for the success of ecological restoration using native species is scarce. (Appendix ) Using a multi‐stakeholder approach, this paper analyses the motivations, preferences, success factors and governance models for effective ecological restoration of Andean Forests, through 75 semi‐structured interviews with local community members, NGOs and government actors in 11 restoration sites in Peru. We find that across sites and stakeholder groups, the primary motivations for Andean Forest restoration were tied to restoring and improving hydrological resources. Stakeholders valued Andean Forests mostly for their provisioning ecosystem services—with water provision valued by all stakeholders and firewood provision predominantly by communities—followed by regulating services (water retention and climate regulation). Restoration success—the degree of perceived achievement of project objectives—was high at all sites and scored between 2.4 and 3 out of 3. Enabling factors for the restoration success were mostly social and institutional. There was no ‘silver bullet’ to successful restoration; rather, enabling factors included high resource dependence of communities, support from NGOs, participatory management and governance, and the creation of communal conservation agreements. Communities emphasized primarily social and institutional limiting factors, while government stakeholders emphasized technical challenges. We further identified three typologies of how projects engage and compensate communities: a ‘payment model’, a ‘capacity model’ and a ‘mixed model’ which differ in their rentability, longevity and socio‐economic benefits provided. All stakeholder groups favoured active forest restoration and community members identified desirable native plant species with local use and hydrological value. Interviewees also highlighted that restoration needs to go beyond forests, and combine native tree planting, agroforestry, restoration of mountain grasslands and peatlands to holistically improve water resources and long‐term economic benefits at a landscape scale. Synthesis and applications . Andean Forest restoration projects need to consider hydrological ecosystem services in all key restoration stages. Communities need to be involved through participatory processes and receive long‐lasting benefits—both ecosystem services and livelihood incentives—to guarantee long‐term project success. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10787
FLARE author(s): Sarah Wilson
Clark, M., Sykulski, A., Liu, S., Sfyridis, A., Pienkowski, T., Karna, B., Oldekop, J., Sangat, S., Watrobska, C., Brandt, M., & Mills, M. (2025). Community Management and Wellbeing Increase the Resilience of Nepali Forests to Climate Change. Research Square.
Abstract
Community-based conservation initiatives are essential for mitigating climate change and biodiversity loss. Yet, the communities leading these efforts are themselves disproportionately impacted by climate change. Despite this, there is little insight about how resilient community-based conservation institutions are to extreme weather and how contextual factors, such as material wellbeing, further affect their durability. We examined this dynamic across nearly 20,000 community-managed forests in Nepal using high-resolution mapping of forest change from 2018–2023. Our analysis revealed that, without community management, tree clearing doubled in response to anomalous precipitation patterns. In contrast, community-managed forests showed no change in tree loss, with resilience to extreme weather similarly bolstered by community wellbeing. Unlike formal protected areas, community-managed forests also maintain local access to essential resources, likely limiting tree harvesting by encouraging cultivation of non-timber forest products. These findings underscore the vulnerability of forests to climate instability and the protective potential of local management.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6413705/v1
FLARE author(s): Johan Oldekop
de Moraes Falleiro, R., Viana Rodovalho, F., Constantino Zacharias, G., Camargo Oliveira, G., Schmidt, I. B., Steil, L., & Carmenta, R. (2025). Wildfire protection in indigenous lands of Brazil: the role of fire brigades programs. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 13(1).
Abstract
Brazil’s indigenous lands (ILs) are important for global environmental sustainability. Despite this, ILs are increasingly threatened by wildfires, largely driven by climate change. The main public policy implemented by the Brazilian government to protect ILs has been the Federal Brigades Program (BRIFs), created in 2013 within the Brazilian Institute of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (Ibama). Coordinated by the National Center for Prevention and Suppression of Wildfires (Prevfogo), with the support of the National Indigenous Peoples Foundation (Funai), the BRIFs are the result of a long learning process, which led to the integrated fire management (IFM). Since then, protection strategies have begun to value social participation, traditional knowledge, and landscape management with prescribed burning. After a decade of operation, now is an opportune moment to evaluate the results of the BRIFs and the paradigm shift it represented. This study evaluated 42 ILs encompassing 25,355,413.6 hectares. Active fire satellite data, captured from outside the prescribed burning season, allowed estimation of wildfire occurrences. Using a before–after-control-intervention approach, ILs covered and not covered by BRIFs were compared before (2003–2012) and after (2014–2023) the program’s implementation. These treatments were evaluated both collectively and separately by ecosystems: fire-prone savannas (Cerrado biome) and fire-sensitive forests (Amazon biome). The data was analyzed using the Chi-Square Adherence test, graphs, and trend lines. Results show that ILs covered by BRIFs presented a significant reduction of 22.7% in the number of active fires following program implementation, whilst those not covered showed an increase of 12.3%. In the Cerrado biome, the reduction in the ILs covered by BRIFs was evident soon after program implementation. In the Amazon biome, this reduction took longer, but the differences are highlighted by the trend curves. These results were achieved with an annual investment of USD 1.02 per hectare protected. We conclude that BRIFs have been effective in protecting Brazil’s ILs from wildfires. Due to its efficiency, combined with low financial cost and equitable gains, the BRIFs Program offers a model for the protection of regions with ecological and social similarities, such as many tropical countries.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-06390-7
FLARE author(s): Rachel Carmenta
Dueñas-Ocampo, S., Hegwood, M., Rojas-Becerra, A. D., Rodríguez-Pinilla, J. P., & Newton, P. (2025). Food systems narratives in Colombia: embracing diverse perspectives can enable hybrid innovation pathways that address food system challenges. Agriculture and Human Values, 42(3), 1457-1476.
Abstract
When analyzing food systems challenges, considering multiple different narratives might lead to solutions that are more innovative and grounded in the local context relative to considering just a single narrative. However, the relationship between narrative diversity and innovation in food systems is not fully understood. Understanding the structure of and interactions between different food systems narratives can help researchers to identify opportunities (e.g., policies, interventions, and institutions) that could facilitate food systems transformations. This paper explores how narratives about food systems converge and vary between different groups of actors in rural Colombia as well as the implications for the co-development of innovative solutions amongst these actors to address food system challenges. As a case study, we focus on an important national policy initiative in Colombia, A Ciencia Cierta, which connects public science and civil society to implement community-based innovations. We conducted 47 interviews with key stakeholders, including policymakers, facilitators, academics, community leaders, and community participants who had been part of the initiative in Colombia, and experts about narratives in food systems globally. We found that actors (both individuals and groups) possess multiple narratives about food systems which evolve over time and adjust according to varying circumstances. Our findings indicate that hybrid innovations enabled by diverse knowledge(s) provide alternative solutions to overcome challenges faced by actors in food systems. This paper generates theoretical and empirical contributions to the growing study of how epistemic plurality can enhance innovation pathways in food systems.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-024-10685-x
FLARE author(s): Peter Newton
Eklund, J., Vuola, M., Määttänen, S., Nakamura, K., Brooks, J., & Miller, D. C. (2025). Influence of funding fads and donor interests on international aid for conservation in Madagascar. Conservation Biology, 39(6), e70122.
Abstract
Tens of billions of dollars in official development assistance have been spent over the past three decades to address the increasingly rapid loss of biodiversity globally. Despite this expenditure, detailed knowledge of who has provided these funds and who has used them, for what purpose, where, why, and with what consequences remains limited. To address this gap, we used a mixed-methods approach to map and analyze international aid for biodiversity conservation in Madagascar, a high-priority country for conservation. We combined collation and analysis of publicly available funding data with semistructured interviews with a range of conservation actors in Madagascar. Overall, biodiversity aid to the country declined from 1990 to 2018 and was punctuated by sharp declines during times of political unrest. Funding flows were marked by periods with distinctive emphases, from institutional development to protected areas, to creating market-based incentives for conservation. These patterns reflected key donor interests and resonated with the views and perceptions of conservation practitioners on the ground. Conservation professionals highlighted how administrative shortsightedness and imbalances in the power relations shaping conservation aid allocation have led to an increasing projectification of the conservation sector and weakening of state capacity. Our findings show that by studying how funding for biodiversity changes within countries over time, one can reveal the interests and power dynamics among donors, governments, and nongovernmental organizations that influence funding decisions and conservation efforts. The evidence and insights presented here can inform future biodiversity funding decision-making in Madagascar and elsewhere and have particular relevance given major funding commitments under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.70122
FLARE author(s): Daniel Miller, Katia Nakamura
Erbaugh, J. T., Chang, C. H., Fajardo, P., Lu, L., Molnár, I., Papp, D., Robinson, B. E., Austin, K. G., Castro, M., Cheng, S. H., Cook-Patton, S., Ellis, P. W., Garg, T., Hochard, J. P., Kroeger, T., McDonald, R. I., Poor, E. E., Smart, L. S., Tilman, A. R., Welker, P., Wood, S. A., & Masuda, Y. J. (2025). Global evidence of human well-being and biodiversity impacts of natural climate solutions. Nature Sustainability, 8, 75–85
Abstract
Natural climate solutions (NCS) play a critical role in climate change mitigation. NCS can generate win–win co-benefits for biodiversity and human well-being, but they can also involve trade-offs (co-impacts). However, the massive evidence base on NCS co-benefits and possible trade-offs is poorly understood. We employ large language models to assess over 2 million published journal articles, primarily written in English, finding 257,266 relevant studies on NCS co-impacts. Using machine learning methods to extract data (for example, study location, species and other key variables), we create a global evidence map on NCS co-impacts. We find that global evidence on NCS co-impacts has grown approximately tenfold in three decades, and some of the most abundant evidence relates to NCS that have lower mitigation potential. Studies often examine multiple NCS, indicating some natural complementarities. Finally, we identify countries with high carbon mitigation potential but a relatively weak body of evidence on NCS co-impacts. Through effective methods and systematic and representative data on NCS co-impacts, we provide timely insights to inform NCS-related research and action globally.
Fischer, H. W., Schultz, B., Coleman, E. A., Filippi, A. M., Guleria, V., Güneralp, B., Kurli, V., Lawrence, B., Ma, A., Ramprasad, V., Rana, P., Rana, R., Rodriguez Solorzano, C., & Fleischman, F. (2025). Forest restoration for environment and well-being is associated with empowered local governance over long time horizons. Environmental Research Letters, 20(9), 094022.
Abstract
Forest restoration is widely recognized as a global priority to sequester carbon, conserve biodiversity, and support the livelihoods of rural and indigenous people. Contemporary interventions often target landscapes with a substantial human presence, and they regularly call for stakeholder participation during project implementation. However, there is a lack of empirical evidence linking local involvement with multiple forest benefits over long time horizons. Using a unique dataset of four decades of government-sponsored tree planting in North India, we find that both substantive local influence over planning projects and sustained control over management into the present—a favorable combination of long-term, empowered local governance—is associated with greater livelihood benefits and improvements in forest canopy cover over time. Our work points toward complex socio-ecological relationships, which may be explained by a positive interaction between empowered local governance, interventions that align with local needs, and long-term local care for planted forests. This implies that current financial commitments may need to be accompanied by institutional reforms that give communities meaningful control over planning and build capacities for self-governance that can endure into the future. In light of this work, we suggest that a paradigm of ‘people-centered restoration’ may offer the best opportunity to support long-term environmental goals in densely settled landscapes in the Global South.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/adf1b8
FLARE author(s): Pushpendra Rana
Fleischman, F., Rana, P., Fischer, H., Guleria, V., Rana, R., & Ramprasad, V. (2025). Planting and replanting: Continuity and change over four decades of forest restoration in Himachal Pradesh, India. PLANTS, PEOPLE, PLANET, 7(5), 1372-1387.
Abstract
Societal Impact Statement India has a long history of planting trees to restore ecosystem services providing an opportunity to evaluate long‐term ecosystem restoration processes. We show that these programs have shifted over time in response to public demands as well as through changes in the government's vision for forests. These shifts point towards opportunities and limits for political responsiveness in the design and implementation of restoration programs. Independent evaluations have shown that the tree planting programs we study often fail to achieve their goals, raising questions about their benefits, and risks from positioning tree planting as a panacea for social and environmental problems. Summary Aims: Interest in forest restoration has increased in recent years with the goal of increasing carbon storage, protecting biodiversity, and improving the delivery of ecosystem services to aid rural livelihoods. However, there is little systematic analysis of how this trend relates to broader histories of landscape interventions. Methods: We analyze a dataset comprising 36 years of government plantation records from the forest department of the Indian Himalayan state of Himachal Pradesh. Findings: Restoration‐oriented tree planting peaked in the 1980s and 1990s with heavy domestic funding. Counter to dominant policy narratives, most plantation programs did not formally involve the participation of local people and were not funded by donors or carbon markets. Over time, planting shifted away from commercial timber species towards a more diverse set of native broadleaf species, reflecting local preferences for the production of firewood, fodder, and other non‐timber forest products and ecosystem services as well as changing conceptions by government agencies about what and who a forest is meant to serve. Over time, the number of programs sponsoring tree planting has proliferated, reflecting the ways that tree planting has been framed as the solution to a growing number of problems, ranging from poverty alleviation to climate adaptation. Conclusion: The current global focus on forest restoration and nature‐based climate solutions represents a reframing of long‐existing policies and programs in this region. As with past policy changes, restoration practices are likely to be influenced by long‐term histories, entrenched practices, and local political influences.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10639
FLARE author(s): Pushpendra Rana
Hajjar, R., Oldekop, J. A., Toto, R., Alencar, L., Bell, S. D., Devenish, K., Khuu, D. T., Hernandez‐Montilla, M., Jung, S., Nofyanza, S., & Sapkota, L. M. (2025). Navigating data challenges in socioeconomic impact assessments of conservation regimes. Conservation Biology, 39(2), e14457.
Abstract
Scholars are increasingly assessing the impact of conservation interventions at national and regional scales with robust causal inference methods designed to emulate randomized control trials (quasi-experimental methods). Although spatial and temporal data to measure habitat loss and gain with remote sensing tools are increasingly available, data to measure spatially explicit poverty and human well-being at a high resolution are far less available. Bridging this data gap is essential to assess the social outcomes of conservation actions at scale and improve understanding of socioenvironmental synergies and trade-offs. We reviewed the kinds of socioeconomic data that are publicly available to measure the effects of conservation interventions on poverty and well-being, including national census data, representative household surveys funded by international organizations, surveys collected for individual research programs, and high-resolution gridded poverty and well-being data sets. We considered 4 challenges in the use of these data sets: consistency and availability of indicators and metrics across regions and countries, availability of data at appropriate temporal and spatial resolutions, and technical considerations associated with data available in different formats. Potential workarounds to these challenges include analytical methods to help resolve data mismatches and the use of emerging data products.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14457
FLARE author(s): Johan Oldekop, Reem Hajjar, Suhyun Jung
Johnson, K. K., Paudel, J., Nogeire-McRae, T., Parton, L., Williamson, M., & Brandt, J. S. (2025). Effectiveness of Land Conservation Programs: Evidence from a Regression Discontinuity Design. SSRN Electronic Journal.
Abstract
Substantial public funds have been invested in farmland preservation in the United States, particularly to fund the purchase of agricultural conservation easements (PACE). In this study, we employ a regression discontinuity design (RDD) to evaluate the impact of Colorado’s conservation investments on easement-level conservation outcomes. Colorado enacted two policies in the 1990s to incentivize conservation: the implementation of lottery dollars to fund conservation projects, and state tax incentives to encourage landowners to put easements on their undeveloped lands. We use fine-scale spatial data on conservation outcomes from counties surrounding the Colorado-Wyoming border to estimate the effects of the conservation investments on four variables of interest: agricultural quality of the land protected, the value of the land protected, easement size, and a measure of how close an easement is placed to other easements. We show that the PACE program in Colorado led to easements on higher quality, lower value land. Our findings suggest that additional funds resulted in conservation decisions that account for both budgetary constraints and state priorities to protect lands of high quality. 1 Abstract Substantial public funds have been invested in farmland preservation in the United States, particularly to fund the purchase of agricultural conservation easements (PACE). In this study, we employ a regression discontinuity design (RDD) to evaluate the impact of Colorado’s conservation investments on easement-level conservation outcomes. Colorado enacted two policies in the 1990s to incentivize conservation: the implementation of lottery dollars to fund conservation projects, and state tax incentives to encourage landowners to put easements on their undeveloped lands. We use fine-scale spatial data on conservation outcomes from counties surrounding the Colorado-Wyoming border to estimate the effects of the conservation investments on four variables of interest: agricultural quality of the land protected, the value of the land protected, easement size, and a measure of how close an easement is placed to other easements. We show that the PACE program in Colorado led to easements on higher quality, lower value land. Our findings suggest that additional funds resulted in conservation decisions that account for both budgetary constraints and state priorities to protect lands of high quality. 1
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5398861
FLARE author(s): Jody Brandt
Johnson, K., Nogeire-McRae, T., Parton, L., Paudel, J., Williamson, M. A., & Brandt, J. (2025). Picking up the PACE: a multi-state empirical analysis of payments for agricultural conservation easement (PACE) program performance. Environmental Research Communications, 7(9), 091007.
Abstract
The United States has implemented a variety of policy mechanisms to protect agricultural lands, and individual states have invested $5.5 billion in this protection; however, the conversion of prime farmland to development continues. Is farmland protection policy effective in maintaining viable agricultural landscapes? In this study, we developed a suite of indicators to measure the performance of state-funded agricultural conservation easement programs including a) land quality, b) cost, c) development risk, d) proportion of a state’s agricultural land protected, and e) contiguity of protected land. We then compared these indicators across 11 states and among three different easement program designs using regression analysis and landscape metrics. We found that state-funded easement programs do not necessarily perform better than easements that were not acquired with public funds. Furthermore, we found that program design may be an important factor when measuring program performance. We categorized these programs by the degree of centralized decision-making and found that decentralized programs protect lands with at least three times higher quality, that are almost twice as valuable, and with at least 1.5 times greater development risk than centralized and collaborative programs. At the landscape level, easements in states with decentralized programs have at least 1.3 times greater contiguity compared to centralized and collaborative programs though they were also associated with the lowest proportion of the state’s agricultural land base under protection at 0.8%. Overall, our analysis revealed that irrespective of program design, there may be trade-offs between the quantity, quality, and cost of the lands protected. Further research is needed to fully investigate how farmland protection policies in general, and program design specifically, affect society’s ability to maintain a viable agricultural land base.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ae009a
FLARE author(s): Jody Brandt
Jung, S. (2025). Cultivating Conservation through Community Communication and Legal Awareness of Secure Land Ownership in Liberia. AEA Randomized Controlled Trials.
Abstract
The management of sustainable resources represents a substantial challenge in developing countries, where incentives for conservation are often insufficient and enforcement mechanisms are limited. This study investigates various avenues for promoting sustainable resource management by employing a series of lab-in-the-field tree extraction games under different interventions that mimic actual resource management decisions. We examine the impact of communication among community members, dissemination of information regarding Liberia's Land Rights Act (LRA), and facilitated comprehension of the LRA, both under normal circumstances and simulated resource shocks. The findings reveal that the ability of participants to discuss strategies for resource management results in a 48% reduction in tree harvesting relative to open access tree harvesting. Providing information on the LRA and further facilitating it through question-and-answer sessions result in a 57% reduction in tree harvesting compared to open access tree harvesting. Initially, a resource shock, in which the initial tree stock was reduced by half, leads to a 17-21% increase in harvesting before interventions. However, the same shock following the communication and information interventions demonstrates no significant increase in harvesting, indicating that these interventions effectively offset overexploitation amid environmental stress. These findings, validated through robustness checks, underscore the importance of community engagement for dialogue and clear understanding of land rights in promoting sustainable resource utilization, particularly under the increasing risk of resource shocks.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1257/rct.15597-1.0
FLARE author(s): Suhyun Jung
Kelley, D. I., Burton, C., Di Giuseppe, F., Jones, M. W., Barbosa, M. L. F., Brambleby, E., McNorton, J. R., Liu, Z., Bradley, A. S. I., Blackford, K., Burke, E., Ciavarella, A., Di Tomaso, E., Eden, J., Ferreira, I. J. M., Fiedler, L., Hartley, A. J., Keeping, T. R., Lampe, S., .. Kolden, C. A. (2025). State of Wildfires 2024–2025. Earth System Science Data, 17(10), 5377-5488.
Abstract
. Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme wildfires globally, yet our understanding of these high-impact events remains uneven and shaped by media attention and regional research biases. The State of Wildfires project systematically tracks global and regional fire activity of each annual fire season, analyses the causes of prominent extreme wildfire events, and projects the likelihood of similar events occurring in future climate scenarios. This, its second annual report, covers the March 2024 to February 2025 fire season. During the 2024–2025 fire season, fire-related carbon (C) emissions totalled 2.2 Pg C, 9 % above average and the sixth highest on record since 2003, despite below-average global burned area (BA). Extreme fire seasons in South America's rainforests, dry forests, and wetlands and in Canada's boreal forests pushed up the global C emissions total. Fire C emissions were over 4 times above average in Bolivia, 3 times above average in Canada, and ∼ 50 % above average in Brazil and Venezuela. Wildfires in 2024–2025 caused 100 fatalities in Nepal, 34 in South Africa, and 31 in Los Angeles, with additional fatalities reported in Canada, Côte d'Ivoire, Portugal, and Türkiye. The Eaton and Palisades fires in Southern California caused 150 000 evacuations and USD 140 billion in damages. Communities in Brazil, Bolivia, Southern California, and northern India were exposed to fine particulate matter at concentrations 13–60 times WHO's daily air quality standards. We evaluated the causes and predictability of four extreme wildfire episodes from the 2024–2025 fire season, including in Northeast Amazonia (January–March 2024), the Pantanal–Chiquitano border regions of Brazil and Bolivia (August–September 2024), Southern California (January 2025), and the Congo Basin (July–August 2024). Anomalous weather created conditions for these regional extremes, while fuel availability and human ignitions shaped spatial patterns and temporal fire dynamics. In the three tropical regions, prolonged drought was the dominant fire enabler, whereas in California, extreme heat, wind, and antecedent fuel build-up were compounding enablers. Our attribution analyses show that climate change made extreme fire weather in Northeast Amazonia 30–70 times more likely, increasing BA roughly 4-fold compared to a scenario without climate change. In the Pantanal–Chiquitano, fire weather was 4–5 times more likely, with 35-fold increases in BA. Meanwhile, our analyses suggest that BA was 25 times higher in Southern California due to climate change. The Congo Basin's fire weather was 3–8 times more likely with climate change, with a 2.7-fold increase in BA. Socioeconomic changes since the pre-industrial period, including land-use change, also likely increased BA in Northeast Amazonia. Our models project that events on the scale of 2024–2025 will become up to 57 %, 34 %, and 50 % more frequent than in the modern era in Northeast Amazonia, the Pantanal–Chiquitano, and the Congo Basin, respectively, under a medium–high scenario (SSP370) by 2100. Climate action can limit the added risk, with frequency increases held to below 15 % in all three regions under a strong mitigation scenario (SSP126). In Southern California, the future trajectory of extreme fire likelihood remains highly uncertain due to poorly constrained climate–vegetation–fire interactions influencing fuel moisture, though our models suggest that risk may decline in future. This annual report from the State of Wildfires project integrates and advances cutting-edge fire observations and modelling with regional expertise to track changing global wildfire hazard, guiding policy and practice towards improved preparedness, mitigation, adaptation, and societal benefit. Thirteen new datasets and model codebases presented in this work are available from the State of Wildfires Project's Zenodo community, including updated annual statistics on wildfire extent (Jones et al., 2025; https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15525674), outputs from modelling of fire causality using PoF model (Di Giuseppe, 2025; https://doi.org/10.24433/CO.8570224.v1) and codebase for the extreme event attribution/projections model, ConFLAME (Barbosa et al., 2025a, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16790787).
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-5377-2025
FLARE author(s): Rachel Carmenta
Kenter, J. O., Carmenta, R., Christie, M., Griffiths, H., Ihemezie, E., Martin, A., Gomez-Osorio, M. T., Pascual, U., Raymond, C. M., Remoundou, K., & Waters, R. (2025). Toward a relational biodiversity economics: Embedding plural values for sustainability transformation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(40), e2314586122.
Abstract
The prioritization of market over nonmarket values of nature is a key driver of the global biodiversity crisis. Recognizing nature's diverse values in decisions is a fundamental lever for sustainability transformation. While economic valuation of nature has a long history, it has struggled to recognize the full suite of nature's values, particularly the broad, relational, intrinsic, and shared values reflecting the complexity of human-nature relationships. We explore opportunities to expand the consideration of values within the economics of biodiversity by reviewing conventional and heterodox economic approaches. We argue that integrating pluralistic values requires a relational biodiversity economics that transcends people-nature dualism and seeks the flourishing of life. We synthesize foundations for such a paradigm in relation to worldviews, values, value indicators, and life frames. Our perspective transcends the dominant economic framing of nature as a passive, largely substitutable asset, to also consider nature as place, self, and harboring agency. This helps to overcome the limitations of conventional economic assumptions, better reflects peoples' lived experiences, and supports transformations toward more just and sustainable futures.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2314586122
FLARE author(s): Rachel Carmenta
Kolarik, N. E., Cattau, M., Koehn, C., Roopsind, A., Williamson, M., & Brandt, J. (2025). Conservation easements target high quality lands but do not increase their quality. Biological Conservation, 308, 111234.
Abstract
Conservation programs targeted at private lands are essential for conserving biodiversity and mitigating and adapting to the effects of climate change. Private land conservation programs typically focus on maximizing acres enrolled, but their outcomes are less studied. We used a counterfactual approach to measure the efficacy of private land protection investments in a high-value conservation region of the western United States, where private agricultural lands provide critical habitats that are not well-protected by public protected areas, but are highly vulnerable to development. We used difference-in-differences panel regressions and annual time series maps of land cover and mesic habitat quality derived from satellite imagery to measure whether conservation easements a) were placed on private lands of higher conservation quality compared to non-easements, and b) improved ecosystem condition after implementation. We found that conservation easements targeted private lands that are less developed and have more healthy ecosystems compared to non-easements. However, we found no evidence that after implementation easements were consistently less likely to be developed, or led to improved mesic ecosystem conditions. Our findings suggest that easements are being placed on high quality lands for conservation, but that they may be a missed opportunity for conservation because conservation and restoration are not always explicit goals of conservation easements, and thus they are not leading to ecosystem improvement after implementation. Through this analysis, we demonstrate the value of low-cost satellite monitoring protocols and statistical impact evaluation to assess conservation actions implemented on private lands.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111234
FLARE author(s): Jody Brandt
Kolarik, N. E., Koehn, C., Nati‐Johnson, E., Rojas Lucero, J. C., Martin, C., Caughlin, T. T., Iskin, E., Jochems, L., Neville, H., & Brandt, J. (2025). Time series analysis to demonstrate restoration outcomes and system change from satellite data. Restoration Ecology, 33(8).
Abstract
Introduction Restoring functions to degraded ecosystems is needed to maintain a sustainable planet. Although restoration efforts are widespread, the majority of restoration projects are not monitored, limiting the ability to assess outcomes, adaptively manage, and improve future restoration projects. Remote sensing, with its multi‐decadal data and global extent, offers new opportunities for restoration monitoring. However, remote sensing data require analytical approaches that may be unfamiliar to ecologists and practitioners. Objectives We present a guide to applying time series analysis to assess restoration outcomes via change point detection, using publicly available remote sensing data. Methods We demonstrate a range of time series analysis techniques for quantifying change at a river corridor restoration site. Results The tools we present can detect if and when change occurs, what type of changes might be expected if restoration were performed at a similar site, and if restoration treatments cause measurable change. We introduce a flow diagram to help restoration professionals determine which change point detection method is most useful for their needs and software with an example to get started. Conclusions We provide recommendations for choosing between different types of models for ecologists and practitioners interested in monitoring, assessing, and communicating restoration outcomes.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.70184
FLARE author(s): Jody Brandt
Larigauderie, A., O’Brien, K., Garibaldi, L. A., & Agrawal, A. (2025). Transformative change to address biodiversity loss is urgent and possible. PLOS Biology, 23(9), e3003387.
Abstract
Transformative change for a just and sustainable world often seems overwhelming, but it is possible. The IPBES Transformative Change Assessment shows how we can all be involved in the strategies and actions needed to achieve it.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3003387
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal
Laumonier, Y., & Adzan, G. (2025). Guidelines for Monitoring Biodiversity in Social-Ecological Landscapes. CIFOR-ICRAF.
Abstract
Despite playing an essential role in safeguarding food security, livelihoods, and human well-being, biodiversity is in precipitous decline globally with devastating social, environmental, and economic impacts (Pörtner et al. 2023). Thus, incorporating biodiversity into integrated landscape management strategies is crucial for reconciling conservation and livelihoods in multifunctional landscapes. However, doing so can be challenging in context of limited resources, competing land demand, land tenure issues, lack of institutional capacity, socioeconomic factors, and livelihood dependency on natural resources. Moreover, climate change impacts, lack of awareness about the value of biodiversity, insufficient stakeholder engagement, and inadequate community involvement in decision-making processes can impede the incorporation of biodiversity considerations into landscape management strategies. Significant concerns exist that the international conservation targets set for 2030 will not be met (Palomo et al. 2024). The guidelines combine conventional scientific studies at multiple scales with the participation of local communities and emphasize local perceptions, knowledge, and experiences in natural resource management. They are divided into two main sections: the conventional biophysical subregional scale approach (district, large watershed) and a more participatory-minded section devoted to a participatory and citizen science approach at the local scale.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.17528/cifor-icraf/009400
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Liao, C., & Agrawal, A. (2025). Divergent outcomes of large-scale land transactions in Ethiopia: A quantitative comparative analysis. Ecological Economics, 230, 108531.
Abstract
Large-scale land transactions (LSLTs) for agricultural development represent changes in inherently complex and coupled socio-ecological systems. This is particularly so in lower- and middle-income countries where land is the principal basis of livelihoods and generates substantial but diverse ecosystem services, and tenure arrangements affect both livelihoods and ecosystem provision simultaneously. Despite decades of research on LSLTs, a significant epistemological gap persists between broad quantitative analyses and in-depth case studies, and systematic empirical research investigating the joint economic, social, and environmental outcomes remains rare. We analyze 24 LSLTs in Ethiopia, selected carefully to represent variations in LSLT characteristics and local contexts. Across these 24 cases, outcomes diverge markedly from the pessimistic conclusions identified in much existing empirical research. Considering such diversity, we classify LSLT outcomes into four categories: synergy, tradeoff, struggle, and failure. We then perform qualitative comparative analysis to examine the specific conditions that correlate with these outcomes. Our findings highlight the importance of moving beyond monoconsequential predictions for land tenure changes and of more comparative analysis of LSLTs to attend to variations across social, economic, and environmental outcomes considered in relation to each other. An integrated epistemological approach, our study shows, is necessary to understand the diverse pathways through which land tenure changes drive human-nature interactions and affect the broader landscape of coupled socio-ecological systems.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2025.108531
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal, Chuan Liao
Liao, C., Kao-Kniffin, J., Reid, M., Zhang, W., Tshabalala, P., Andrus, E., Butler-Jones, Z., LaPoint, J., Zhou, S., Rafols, R., Shin, S., Ichihara, M., Pereira, A., Butler, N., Tu, Y., & McCouch, S. R. (2025). Rice farming for climate change adaptation in the Northeastern United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(49).
Abstract
In response to challenges posed by climate change, rice farming emerges as a strategic adaptation in the agriculture sector in the northeastern United States. Cultivating rice can diversify farming practices, create new sources of income, improve water management, and provide habitats for wildlife, enhancing the sustainability of agricultural systems and rural economies. However, challenges such as methane emissions from rice paddies and the risk of metal(loid) contamination highlight the need for adopting best practices in rice cultivation, particularly in land and water management and the selection of suitable rice varieties. By learning from the experience of other temperate rice farming regions and implementing supportive policies, technology, and cooperative frameworks, farming communities in the northeastern United States can learn to navigate these obstacles, ensuring the successful integration of rice farming into its agricultural landscape.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2402181122
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Li, Y., Lu, D., Yu, X., & Liao, C. (2025). Exploring Characteristics of Emerging Nature Education Practices in China: Content Analysis of Lesson Plans. Integrative Conservation, 4(3), 322-333.
Abstract
To understand the characteristics of emerging nature education practices in China, this study conducted a content analysis of 154 lesson plans submitted through a Nature Education Massive Open Online Course offered by Cornell University. We found that nature education practices covered a wide range of topics, settings, objectives, and activities, gaining popularity among diverse audiences. The analysis revealed distinct objectives tailored to different audiences: early childhood lesson plans primarily focused on skills and cognitive development; plans for students emphasized the development of scientific knowledge and skills; for adults, the main objective was to foster nature connection and enhance health, particularly through stress reduction; and for families, the focus was on strengthening parent‐child relationships. While objectives varied significantly across audiences, the activities showed less variation, often blending multiple approaches. However, very few lesson plans incorporated objectives related to environmental conservation or sustainability actions, particularly those involving civic engagement strategies. Nature education in China stays exploratory and is largely driven by broader social needs in education and well‐being. We offer recommendations for integrating more intentional conservation outcomes while maintaining nature education's broad appeal within modern Chinese society. This study provides insight into emerging nature education practices in China and offers recommendations on future research to examine long‐term trends and the implementation of these lesson plans.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1002/inc3.70040
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Vanessa Luna-Celino, Karen A. Kainer, Rachel Carmenta, Bette Loiselle & Aslhey Cuellar. (2025). Burning perceptions that integrate wellbeing and ecosystem services to inform fire governance in the Peruvian Andes. Journal of Rural Studies, 116, 103610.
Abstract
Fire is an essential tool enabling tropical subsistence agriculture, but can escape beyond its intended borders when not adequately controlled. Indeed this risk may be increasing under changing ecological and climatic shifts with implications for what constitutes adequate fire management. Understanding the perceptions of key actors about the role of fire and effective management is a crucial step in fire governance because it exposes views and can facilitate transparent decision-making and conflict management. Drawing on frameworks of wellbeing and ecosystem services, we conducted Q methodology with 56 fire users and managers, including subsistence-based Quechua farmers, firefighters, researchers, nonprofit staff, and government agents. Factor analysis revealed three distinct viewpoints on the role of fire, ranging from emphasizing the negative impacts of escaped fires on ecosystem services (e.g., on biodiversity and climate change impacts) to acknowledging benefits of intentional fires for rural wellbeing (e.g., that agricultural burns open new farmland or fire as the most accessible way to work the farm). We also found three viewpoints regarding fire management deemed effective: top-down fire suppression, community-based fire suppression, and community-based fire management. Integrating these diverse perspectives, actionable insights for decision making should include: legal recognition of traditional controlled burns, training programs that support volunteer community fire brigades, and integrated fire management solutions at multiple scales (community, district, regional, and national). Our analysis, grounded in the Peruvian Andes, suggests pathways for effective fire governance that can reconcile the different needs, uses, and types of fire.
Mallory, G., Crandall, M. S., Hajjar, R., & Leahy, J. E. (2025). Does Collaboration Distribute Power? Evidence From State Forest Lands Governance in the United States. Environmental Policy and Governance, 36(1), 26-38.
Abstract
Over the last two decades, collaborative approaches to forest governance have become commonplace, valued for their potential to reduce conflict and increase equity and democracy. Despite growing application, little research has explored collaboration on state forestland management within the United States. The state scale is a particularly interesting arena for investigation as limited federal regulation of state land in the US leaves ample room for difference between cases. Furthermore, while the importance of power in collaboration is widely accepted, few empirical studies examine the role of power dynamics in the collaborative governance of natural resources. We conducted a comparative case study of two advisory groups guiding state land decision‐making to understand the extent to which power was distributed through their establishment and deliberative processes. While overall results support established theoretical frameworks describing power sources, we found evidence for three sources of power unaccounted for previously. We describe these as the resource of broad perspective , trust via predictability , and the power of veto . We also note the compounding effects of power evident in our cases and posit that implementing power sharing may be easier when the stakes are low. Finally, we highlight that collaborative governance processes do not always develop power for a broad range of impacted parties—a finding that holds important implications for the longevity of power developed through collaborative processes and the advantage of these initiatives.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.70034
FLARE author(s): Reem Hajjar
Mansaray, B., Amadu, F. O., & Jin, S. C. (2025). Farmer-Social Interaction and the Adoption of Improved Rice Varieties: Empirical Evidence from Sierra Leone. SSRN Electronic Journal.
Abstract
In an era of rising global population and dwindling global food security in the face of climate change and extreme weather shocks, there is a need for urgent action to enhance global food security. The adoption of improved crop varieties across rural communities is especially useful in contexts like sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) where food insecurity and climate change are pronounced. However, the adoption of such technologies remains low in SSA and similar contexts due to binding constraints like inadequate access to extension services often dominated by traditional topdown extension systems, and a lack of capital. Farmer social networks are increasingly viewed as crucial mechanisms for enhancing technology adoption in SSA and elsewhere. However, rigorous estimates of the impacts of farmer social networks on the adoption of improved rice varieties remain limited in SSA. This study responds to this gap by applying an endogenous treatment regression technique to survey data from 624 rice farmers across rural Sierra Leone, to estimate the effects of farmer social networks on the adoption of improved rice varieties in the country. The approach accounts for endogeneity of farmer social interaction and selection bias associated with improved rice varietal adoption. We found that the farmer social network has positive and statistically significant effects on the adoption of improved rice varieties by 13%. Heterogeneity analyses show that there was a higher adoption rate among farmers who interacted more with other farmers in farmers' organisations compared to other avenues such as community-wide organizations, formal learning institutions, and contacts with master farmers. Our results suggest that farmer-to-farmer interaction can serve as a useful tool in the diffusion of improved rice varieties in Sierra Leone. More broadly, this research demonstrates that farmer social interactions can enhance the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) especially food security (SDG 2), through improved rice production in Sierra Leone and similar contexts elsewhere.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5279672
FLARE author(s): Festus Amadu
Massaro, E., Newton, P., Ciscar, J. C., Dubois, G., Fanelli, A., Ibarreta, D., Riccetti, N., Szewczyk, W., & Cescatti, A. (2025). A 45-year global analysis of the spatial human forest nexus. Communications Earth & Environment, 6(1).
Abstract
Forests play a crucial role in providing important ecosystem services such as biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and biomass production, while supporting the livelihoods of millions of people globally. Understanding the spatial relationship between human populations and forests is vital for assessing how these socio-environmental systems interact and evolve over time. However, a global scale understanding of these spatial relationships remains limited. Here, we address this gap by examining the joint global trends in human population and forest dynamics from 1975 to 2020. We assess two indicators of spatial and temporal trends: forest area per person (FAP) and forest proximate people (FPP), illustrating how the spatial interplay between humans and forests has changed over time. We then introduce the forest human nexus (FHN), a spatial indicator that integrates forest area per capita, forest accessibility, and population density to provide a geospatial assessment of human–forest relationships. Our analysis reveals an uneven distribution of FHN trends worldwide, reflecting severe ecological stress in many tropical regions and highlighting the need for targeted interventions. By offering detailed spatiotemporal insights and a new spatial metric for human–forest interactions, this study aims to inform policymakers, conservationists, development practitioners, and researchers in fostering more sustainable human–forest relationships.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02514-8
FLARE author(s): Peter Newton
Miller, D. C., Scales, I. R., & Mascia, M. B. (2025). Five principles to enhance conversations about conservation. Conservation Biology, 39(6), e70134.
Abstract
Conservation is a social process with profound consequences for both nature and people. The social sciences, which include study of human societies and relationships between individuals and groups within those societies, are therefore uniquely positioned to examine and inform conservation efforts. The past 2 decades have seen growing recognition that conservation is fundamentally about people and the choices they make (Balmford & Cowling, 2006; Bennett, Roth, Klain, Chan, Christie, et al., 2017; Mascia et al., 2003). This recognition has led to the development of conservation social science (CSS)—“the study of the conservation-relevant aspects of human society, including the relationships among humans and between humans and their environment” (Miller et al., 2023)—as a field. Yet, the incorporation of the social sciences in mainstream conservation training, policy, and practice remains incomplete. For example, a recent study of conservation higher education in Australia and the United Kingdom showed that social science methods training is still absent from most curricula (Slater et al., 2024). Many challenges exist to better integration of social science into conservation (Bennett, Roth, Klain, Chan, Clark, et al., 2017). Social science disciplines often have different vocabularies and methodologies. They can also be based on very different philosophies of what research is for and even differ on what counts as valid knowledge (Moon & Blackman, 2023). Integration has been uneven across social science disciplines. Social research for conservation (which tends to be more applied) more easily meshes with mainstream conservation compared with social research on conservation (which tends to be more critical) (Sandbrook et al., 2013). Both are important, but dialogue between researchers across these traditions, and among the social and natural sciences more generally, has often been lacking. In a form of epistemic violence, governments and nongovernmental organizations working on conservation have sometimes intimidated and silenced social scientists investigating the power structures and inequalities in conservation (Koot et al., 2025). Moreover, some social sciences have historically ignored conservation and the environment as areas of research (Miller et al., 2023). Even within social science disciplines that routinely study conservation issues, conservation research and practice has sometimes been portrayed as monolithic (Sandbrook et al., 2011). In addition to the challenges of integrating different disciplines, researchers may struggle with tensions among the roles of scholar (document, explain, and critique), practitioner (identify problems and implement solutions), and advocate (promote specific goals and actions). Those working in conservation have a complex and wide-ranging set of values and ideas about how conservation should be carried out (Luque Lora et al., 2022; Sandbrook et al., 2011). Further, the diversity of perspectives on conservation is multiplied considerably when one looks beyond the social sciences to the natural sciences (Cardinale & Murdoch, 2025), Indigenous knowledge (Hill et al., 2020; Kimmerer, 2013), the arts and humanities (Bennett & Roth, 2019; Castree et al., 2014), and business, law, and policy (Ostrom & Cox, 2010; Smith et al., 2020). Thus, conservation conversations among people who often have very different beliefs, values, and backgrounds can sometimes be boisterous and heated. Although the growth of CSS and diversification of perspectives in conservation science and practice deserve celebration, much work remains. Racial, gender, nationality, and other inequalities persist in the conservation movement and among those who study it (Campos-Arceiz et al., 2018; Jones & Solomon, 2019; Maas et al., 2021). The shift in power relations required to move beyond the rhetoric of participation and empowerment to redress inequalities remains insufficient (Bailey et al., 2020; Petriello et al., 2025). We started this contribution from the premise that because conservation is not unified and can involve irreconcilable viewpoints (e.g., on whether capitalism facilitates or undermines conservation; Matulis & Moyer, 2017; cf. Child, 2009), those working in conservation must acknowledge, include, and attend to multiple and sometimes conflicting perspectives. To do so, requires better conversations among disparate perspectives as a first step toward a more inclusive and holistic conservation science and practice. Such conversations (i.e., “talk between two or more people in which thoughts, feelings, and ideas are expressed, questions are asked and answered, or news and information is exchanged” [Cambridge Dictionary, 2024]) can be formal (structured and deliberate) or informal (unstructured and spontaneous). We focused on the former, but our contribution can also help with the latter. To support enhanced conversations, here we outline principles and a framework derived from Conservation Social Science (Miller et al., 2023) and relevant literature in and beyond conservation. We tested and refined the principles and framework in international workshops held in São Paulo, Brazil, and Nairobi, Kenya, in 2023. Our intended audience includes individuals and groups working in conservation research, policy, and practice (e.g., in universities, government, or nongovernmental organizations) who wish to better engage with the diverse views, values, and knowledges related to conservation. Such engagement is imperative if global biodiversity goals are to be achieved (CBD, 2022), not least because the inclusion of diverse disciplinary and social perspectives improves the quality of collective judgment and action (Moore & MacKenzie, 2020; Page, 2008). Perspectives on conservation are diverse within the conservation movement and across society (Pascual et al., 2021; Sandbrook et al., 2011). Enhanced dialogue on the future of conservation therefore requires distinguishing different views and the interests they represent and genuinely trying to understand them (even if full understanding may not always be possible). Doing so means questioning potentially unfounded assumptions and avoiding caricatures of arguments of those holding different views. For CSS more specifically, it entails distinguishing differences in underlying values and philosophies (e.g., regarding the purpose of research) from more superficial differences (e.g., in data collection and analyses). Because conservation comprises a wide range of viewpoints, some of which may be irreconcilable (Matulis & Moyer, 2017), achieving consensus will not always be possible. Disagreement is not inherently negative (Angouri, 2012) and should not be ignored or suppressed. Critique and dissent are important because they can help avoid the suppression of marginal voices and reveal new possibilities for addressing interlinked social and environmental problems (Raymond et al., 2022). Conservation and conservation science are increasingly interdisciplinary (Bennett, Roth, Klain, Chan, Christie, et al., 2017; Kareiva & Marvier, 2012). Formal training in more than one discipline or in an interdisciplinary field can be useful, although it is not necessary to contribute effectively to conversations about conservation. However, basic awareness of other disciplines, methodologies, and worldviews can facilitate dialogue. Such awareness can help build respect for specialized disciplinary expertise, Indigenous and local knowledge, and different methods, which may help advance understanding and address conservation challenges. Introductory primers on CSS (Miller et al., 2023) and conservation biology (Cardinale & Murdoch, 2025), for example, can help build basic awareness. Conservation researchers sometimes wring their hands because decision-making processes seem unscientific or political (Adams & Sandbrook, 2013). Yet, research can inform beliefs on which complex values-based decisions are made, even if is not wholly determinative of decision-making. A more nuanced and realistic understanding of the role of science in decision-making—as one of many different considerations that a decision maker might weigh along with, for example, their own values, public opinion, interest group pressure, political party affiliation, or a catalyzing event—can lead to more effective conversations and strategies for engaging in decision-making processes. Here, the social sciences can play a vital role in improving understanding of these processes and how they might be influenced. Disparities in conservation remain stubbornly persistent. Thus, conservation conversations must be diversified so that the White, male, middle-class voices of native English speakers (which include the authors of this article) do not predominate and new voices can be heard (Bailey et al., 2020; Chaudhury & Colla, 2021; Rudd et al., 2021). Such diversification requires a fundamental shift in power away from the Global North (Kothari, 2021). It also demands moving beyond abstract ideas and tokenistic actions to a material rebalancing of profoundly asymmetric power relations as a starting point for more just, effective, and enduring conservation (Temin, 2025). Although those working in conservation must seek to engage with plural perspectives, the questions of who gets to initiate dialogue in the first place and who decides whom to invite to take part in conversations remain. Sober analysis of how power has shaped conservation discourse, policy, and action is necessary to identify potential leverage points for dislodging current power structures (Kashwan et al., 2021; Raymond et al., 2022). Synthetic research on power (Miller & Agrawal, 2023; Shackleton et al., 2023) and decolonization in conservation (Corbera et al., 2021) can help guide such analyses. Building on insights from social science (Angouri, 2012; Brown, 2018; Page, 2008) and conservation experience (Gregory et al., 2012; Nikolakis & Hotte, 2022), we propose a framework for acting on the principles for enhancing conservation conversations in 3 steps: before, during, and after conversations. First, take stock of who has been invited and who has not. Consider inviting others who may have been overlooked. Second, create conditions for invitees to participate given constraints they may face. For example, ensuring a trusted convener and taking care to respect gender and other social norms can help enable participation. Our experience and a large literature (e.g., Kaner, 2014) suggest that a trained facilitator may be useful here as well as during the conversation. Third, clarify and agree on the purpose of the conversation and on the ground rules for it. Is the conversation meant to lead to a specific decision or action? Or, is the aim to build dialogue and greater understanding? Even for conversations that do not have the goal of consensus, a topic agreed on ahead of time can facilitate preparation and focused discussion. Asking participants to suggest and then read, watch, or listen to material relevant to the selected topic can also enable meaningful dialogue. First, identify the range of viewpoints and what values, experiences, methods, and priorities undergird them. Second, listen to understand. Ensure all parties have a grasp of participants’ viewpoints and encourage participants to ask questions to clarify misunderstandings. Third, once different views are established and understood, locate areas of agreement (where consensus might be achieved) and areas of disagreement (where consensus might not be possible or even desirable). Fourth, develop appreciation of the nature of the disagreements and how fundamental they are (e.g., agreement on conservation goals but not practices vs. fundamental disagreement on goals) as a basis for potential agreement or for recognizing and even celebrating viewpoint difference. Fifth, manage in a fair and inclusive way different views and conflicts that may emerge. Sixth, create space for introspection and reflection among participants to inform postconversation agreements, including about whether and how to continue the conversation. First, gather feedback to learn how the conversation went from the perspective of those involved, especially from individuals and groups historically marginalized in conservation, and identify what to do differently in future conversations. Second, follow through to implement and assess plans and agreements made. Soulé (1985, p. 727) labeled conservation biology as “multidisciplinary,” “synthetic,” and “eclectic” and explicitly noted the need for insights from the social sciences. Since then, the field of CSS has emerged and grown markedly (Miller et al., 2023). However, its development and integration with conservation more generally are far from complete. Much work still focuses on biological processes rather than important, but often harder-to-measure, social factors (Hicks et al., 2016). A more comprehensive and dynamic understanding of conservation capable of informing effective action to maintain and restore biodiversity requires valuing various ways of knowing and knowledges. To grow further, conservation research, training, policy, and practice must embrace the diversity of methodologies, philosophies, and insights from the social sciences and beyond. In so doing, CSS can mature as a field that rigorously examines the myriad social dimensions of conservation and human–nature interactions in a rapidly changing world. How integration of the broad and diverse array of social sciences in conservation might occur—and vice versa—remains an open question. We simply stress such a process must start with frank conversations that recognize the plurality of views, values, and approaches in the social sciences and beyond. The social sciences can help improve understanding of the varieties of conservation, support conservation practice, and imagine other ways it could be carried out. As a field, CSS can also present a productive forum for conversations about potential synergies among different goals, while navigating trade-offs. Embracing the principles described here and revising them based on experience will help foster greater equality, respect, and trust necessary for better conversations among participants in varied conservation-related debates. Doing so will require patience and humility. However, it is our firm belief that better conversations are a necessary first step toward better research, better policies, and better practices capable of transforming currently unsustainable trajectories to a world of mutual flourishing for people and biodiversity. We thank F. Liberali and her research group at the Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, T. Osborne, participants at the 2023 FLARE Annual Meeting in Nairobi, and 4 anonymous reviewers for comments on an earlier version of this article. We thank Wiley for permission to draw from the concluding chapter of Conservation Social Science: Understanding People and the Conservation of Biodiversity, edited by Miller et al. (2023). This work was supported by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation (grant 05-83705-000-GSS).
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.70134
FLARE author(s): Daniel Miller
Ng, A., Gergel, S. E., Fromstein, M., Sunderland, T., Zerriffi, H., & Nankaya, J. (2025). Moving beyond forest cover: Linking forest density, age, and fragmentation to diet. Food Security, 17(3), 625-640.
Abstract
Forests support food security and nutrition worldwide, especially so for highly forest-dependent communities who collect a variety of food products from nearby forests. While the importance of forest cover to the diets of forest-dependent communities has been well-researched, little is known regarding the role of more specific forest characteristics - information that would be valuable for better identifying the landscapes that support a nutritious and diverse diet. To address this research gap, we linked child dietary data to remotely-sensed geospatial indicators of surrounding forest characteristics - using more nuance than is typically undertaken - by examining forest age, tree density, and forest fragmentation in Kenya's East African Montane Forests. Interestingly, dietary diversity of children demonstrated no or relatively weak associations with forest characteristics. However, by parsing out individual food groups, we exposed the nuance and complexities associated with the forest-diet relationship. Vegetable/fruit consumption was positively associated with open and moderately dense forest cover, but negatively associated with fragmented forest cover. The consumption of meat and vitamin A-rich fruit was positively associated with younger forest cover, and negatively associated with dense forest cover. Older forest cover was positively associated with green leafy vegetable consumption, but negatively associated with other vegetable/fruit consumption. Our findings provide suggestive evidence that there is no single 'ideal' type of forest for supporting food security and nutrition - rather, different types of forests are associated with different dietary benefits. Taken together, these results indicate the need for more in-depth research that accounts for factors beyond the proximity and amount of generic forest cover.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-025-01535-7
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Oldekop, J. A., Mansourian, S., Djenontin, I. N. S., Elias, M., Derkyi, M. A. A., Kull, C. A., & Pacheco, P. (2025). Ecosystem restoration centered in people. Restoration Ecology, e70049.
Abstract
Ecosystem restoration is primarily led by biodiversity and climate change imperatives, often disregarding associated yet complex social, cultural, political, economic, institutional, and behavioral aspects. Ultimately, it is people who take decisions on, carry out, and are impacted by restoration. The sociopolitical contexts in which ecosystem restoration takes place, stakeholders' decisions leading to degradation or motivations to restore, influencing factors such as values, norms, and power relations, the restoration activities and their outcomes on people all constitute critical human dimensions. Yet, these dimensions are less understood and, therefore, rarely fully integrated into ecosystem restoration policy or practice. We introduce a five-pillar framework to support ecosystem restoration strategies, projects, and programs to analyze, plan, revise, and improve their design and implementation by effectively integrating human dimensions. Without attending to these human considerations, we cannot achieve—in a just, equitable, and sustainable manner—ambitious restoration targets and address the interrelated crises of biodiversity loss, climate change, and land degradation.
Oldekop, J. A., Mansourian, S., Djenontin, I. N. S., Elias, M., Derkyi, M. A. A., Kull, C. A., & Pacheco, P. (2025). Situating the “human” in forest landscape restoration. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 12, 1522979
Abstract
Globally, forest landscape restoration (FLR) is gaining ground, alongside other forms of restoration under the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. In most cases, projects and initiatives fail to consider human dimensions that influence the processes and outcomes of the restoration effort. These dimensions refer to how and why humans value natural resources; how humans want resources to be managed; and how humans affect or are affected by natural resource management decisions. Using the model of the forest transition curve that shows the trajectory from loss of forests to restored forests, we discuss how FLR intersects in different ways with this transition curve. We conclude that: 1) definitions and their implications are a fundamental challenge for FLR; 2) there is an intrinsic interdependence between people and forests that varies across spatial and temporal scales and that is mediated by institutions; 3) power differentials among stakeholders create imbalances in restoration; 4) conflicts around restoration result from differing interests, power and values. Equitable and durable restoration requires a much greater inclusion of human dimensions along all steps of the process.
Oldekop, J. A., Devenish, K., Alencar, L., Erbaugh, J. T., Hernández-Montilla, M., Jaiswal, S., Khuu, D. T., Mansourian, S., Meyfroidt, P., Nofyanza, S., & Pritchard, R. (2025). Sustainable forest transitions: A new analytical framework to understand social and ecological outcomes of reforestation. One Earth, 8(5), 101248.
Abstract
Restoring forests is key to addressing the climate and biodiversity crises and can benefit forest-dependent communities. However, frequent social and ecological trade-offs between these goals pose significant challenges for forest restoration efforts. Our understanding of how to maximize positive social and ecological restoration outcomes is hindered by the absence of a social-ecological theory of forest restoration. We present a new analytical "sustainable forest transitions" framework to study the joint social and ecological outcomes of reforestation drivers. Our framework advances forest transition theory, the main existing framework for understanding reforestation drivers, by incorporating social outcomes and a wider set of ecological outcomes, paying particular attention to interactions between drivers and the sociopolitical contexts in which they operate. Advances in data availability, computing power, and causal inference methods allow our framework to be operationalized. Doing so could inform forest restoration actions that maximize benefits for climate, biodiversity, and forest-dependent communities.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2025.101248
FLARE author(s): J.T. Erbaugh, Johan Oldekop
Oldekop, J. A., Hall, C. M., den Braber, B., Vansant, E., Das, U., Fielding, D., Kamoto, J. F. M., & Rasmussen, L. V. (2025). Trees on farms improve dietary quality in rural Malawi. Conservation Letters, 18(1), e13061.
Abstract
Trees on farms not only provide agricultural and environmental benefits but can also contribute to food security. We use panel data covering a 10-year period from the World Bank's Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) to examine the effects of trees on farms on people's dietary quality in rural Malawi. We found that having on-farm trees leads to higher and more diverse fruit and vegetable consumption. Specifically, households who had trees on their farm (or who acquired trees during the 10-year period) exhibited a 3% increase in vegetable consumption compared to households without trees. Moreover, for every additional tree species owned or acquired by a household during the study period, fruit consumption increased by 5%. These results demonstrate that trees on farms may play a role in meeting nutrition, conservation, and climate change mitigation goals, with important implications for sustainable development strategies in low- and middle-income countries.
Park, M. S., & Sunderland, T. C. H. (2025). Forests and Food: Challenges and Opportunities. Trees, Forests and People, 19, 100799.
Abstract
Around 2.7 billion people globally depend on forests and tree-based ecosystems to some extent. Low and middle income countries, in the tropical regions in particular, representing two-thirds of the global population, rely on nature, including forests, in some way for at least some essential resources including drinking water, housing materials, primary energy for cooking, or livelihoods. Forests and tree-based agroforests provide timber for construction, non-timber forest products such as food and fuelwood, and support sustainable agriculture through water regulation, soil conservation, carbon sequestration, and habitat protection. People living in areas with greater forest cover tend to benefit from more diverse diets and a lower disease burden compared to those in less forested areas. This special issue aims to enhance collective knowledge about tree-based foods through diverse approaches, including livelihood, sustainable food production, food security, nutrition, and health. It features thirteen papers exploring forests and food, incorporating case studies from eleven countries: Brazil, China, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Sri Lanka, and the United States. These papers provide scientific evidence and practical insights on managing forest-based food systems, and support the establishment and implementation of forest and food security-related policies and practices.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tfp.2025.100799
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Parry, L., Morello, T. F., Fraser, J. A., Guerrero, N., Lotta, G. S., Martins, R. C., Newton, P., Cardoso, J. C. P., Souza Santos, A. A., & Torres, M. (2025). Forest citizens and people‐centered conservation in the Brazilian Amazon. Conservation Biology, 39(3), e70031.
Abstract
Demands for territorial recognition are foundational to the claiming of rights by forest-proximate people who attempt to conserve their forests. The rights of these often-marginalized populations have been largely overlooked by conservationists, yet they are central to achieving people-centered conservation. We further developed the concept of forest citizenship as a normative framework and analytical tool based on Brazilian social environmentalism (socioambientalismo), florestania (a former political project in Acre state), Latin American scholarship on ecological citizenship, and Eurocentric political philosophy. Decades of struggle for territorial recognition and social inclusion have solidified the right to have rights for Amazonia's forest citizens. Hence, forest citizens are people who have become so through the sociopolitical dynamics of their rights claims. Forest citizenship is built on community mobilization to create legally recognized territories with participatory governance but becomes tangible only if individuals and communities can successfully claim other rights from institutions through everyday practices of citizenship. We also assessed the current number and distribution of forest citizens across Brazilian Amazonia based on gridded population data and spatial analyses to calculate the resident population in four territorial categories that meet these democratic preconditions: Indigenous lands, extractive reserves, sustainable development reserves, ecological settlement projects, and Afro-descendent Quilombola territories. The territories covered 31% of the Legal Amazon, were home to 1.05 million forest citizens, and had diverse primary policy objectives but shared goals of empowering communities and conserving forests. To be emancipatory, forest citizenship must be bottom-up, socially inclusive, and improve people's lives. We suggest that conservationists pay greater attention to power relations and decision-making structures related to forest territories. Territory-based forest citizenship may be relevant for other countries where environmentalism has intersected with struggles for land rights and democracy.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.70031
FLARE author(s): Peter Newton
Pham, T. T., & Sunderland, T. C. H. (2025). Towards an effective, practical and equitable forest carbon legal framework in Vietnam: Recommendations and proposals for the Draft Decree on Forest Carbon Sequestration and Storage Services, based on a synthesis of global and Vietnamese experiences and practices. CIFOR-ICRAF.
Abstract
This report analyses the provisions proposed in the Draft Decree on Forest Carbon Sequestration and Storage Services (‘the Draft Decree’) and provides relevant information as well as scientific evidence in both the global and Vietnamese contexts. The aim is to help policymakers make informed adjustments that align with Vietnam’s specific circumstances while positioning the country to proactively respond to emerging trends in the future carbon market.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.17528/cifor-icraf/009388
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Pradhan, N., & Agrawal, A. (2025). Mapping fine-scale socioeconomic inequality using machine learning and remotely sensed data. PNAS Nexus, 4(2), pgaf040-pgaf040.
Abstract
Limited and missing socioeconomic data have made it nearly impossible to measure or estimate inequality consistently at fine spatiotemporal and jurisdictional scales, especially for lower- and middle-income countries. We deploy a novel data harmonization method that combines existing household survey data with freely available remotely sensed data and machine learning techniques to generate fine-scale socioeconomic inequality estimates across spatial and temporal scales for India. Our manuscript makes three important contributions. First, it identifies key remote sensing datasets that, in combination with nighttime luminosity, improve its predictive power to estimate measures of socioeconomic inequality. Second, it offers an analytical approach that reliably estimates the uneven distribution of socioeconomic conditions by harmonizing household assets and sociodemographic information that remotely sensed data at the village or similar geographic levels represent-the results achieve >84% prediction accuracy. Finally, it leverages a spatially cross-validated machine learning model with training and test datasets from two successive Demographic and Health Surveys to demonstrate how data gaps in socioeconomic inequality at subnational levels can be addressed. Our replicable approach has the potential to improve global inequality data, thereby supporting research and applications aiming to reduce socioeconomic inequality in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf040
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal
Puig-Gironès, R., Palmero-Iniesta, M., Fernandes, P. M., Oliveras Menor, I., Ascoli, D., Kelly, L. T., Charles-Dominique, T., Regos, A., Harrison, S., Armenteras, D., Brotons, L., de-Miguel, S., Spadoni, G. L., Carmenta, R., Machado, M., Cardil, A., Santos, X., Erdozain, M., Canaleta, G., .. Pons, P. (2025). The use of fire to preserve biodiversity under novel fire regimes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 380(1924), 20230449.
Abstract
Novel fire regimes are emerging worldwide and pose substantial challenges to biodiversity conservation. Addressing these challenges and mitigating their impacts on biodiversity will require developing a wide range of fire management practices. In this paper, we leverage research across taxa, ecosystems and continents to highlight strategies for applying fire knowledge in biodiversity conservation. First, we define novel fire regimes and outline different fire management practices in contemporary landscapes from different parts of the world. Next, we synthesize recent research on fire use and biodiversity, and provide a decision-making framework for biodiversity conservation under novel fire regimes. We recommend that fire management strategies for preserving biodiversity should consider both social and ecological factors, iterative learning informed by effective monitoring, and developing and testing new management actions. An integrated approach to learning about fire and biodiversity will help to navigate the complexities of novel fire regimes and preserve biodiversity in a rapidly changing world.This article is part of the theme issue 'Novel fire regimes under climate changes and human influences: impacts, ecosystem responses and feedbacks'.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2023.0449
FLARE author(s): Rachel Carmenta
Rasmussen, L. V., Vansant, E., Hall, C., den Braber, B., Kamoto, J., Geck, M., & Reiner, F. (2025). Multipurpose trees on farms can improve nutrition in Malawi. One Earth, 8(2).
Abstract
This study investigates how Maya farmers in Mexico respond to agri-environmental subsidies aimed at promoting sustainable land use decisions. We do so through a serious games approach, using a tailor-designed board game to identify the land use behaviors of Maya farmers. The game simulated three different subsidy programs promoting mechanized agriculture, forest conservation, and agroforestry. We find that farmers tend to clear forested areas in response to agroforestry subsidies. Also, we observe that land use decisions are path-dependent, with farmers adhering to traditional and mechanized agriculture and hesitant to engage in conservation and agroforestry. These findings highlight the potential of serious games as a tool to improve understandings of how farmers make land use decisions and the resulting land use change patterns. Specifically, our findings show that serious games are well suited to understand how path dependency in decision-making can influence the effect of subsidies – and whether subsidies thereby achieve the intended goals, such as reduced deforestation.
Reed, J., Barlow, J., Carmenta, R., Fakheran, S., Ickowitz, A., & Sunderland, T. (2025). Avoid Cherry‐Picking Targets and Embrace Holistic Conservation to Pursue the Global Biodiversity Framework. Conservation Letters, 18(3).
Abstract
The Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) marked a renewed commitment to addressing the global biodiversity crisis. This framework of four goals and 23 interim targets is intended to guide and accelerate conservation efforts over the next 25 years and is more ambitious than its predecessor, the Aichi 2020 targets. However, the pursuit of multilateral agreements is dependent upon national pledges, and the limited success of the Aichi targets shows that national pledges are of little worth without aligned (sub)national action. We assessed the submitted National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans of several member countries to determine their alignment with the bold ambition of the GBF. We find a lack of alignment between the GBF and country submissions across many targets, with the notable exception of Target 3—commonly interpreted as increasing protected area coverage to 30% by 2030. Reflecting on the submissions, recent developments, and our collective experience, we outline key considerations that could help guide future submissions and implementation strategies. We caution against cherry‐picking specific targets, highlighting that an overemphasis on Target 3 will fail to achieve the overarching vision of living in harmony with nature. This requires a more holistic and inclusive approach to conservation and a focus on the full suite of GBF targets.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.13104
FLARE author(s): Rachel Carmenta, Terry Sunderland
Reich, P. B., Grace, K., Agrawal, A., & Nagendra, H. (2025). Mitigation justice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(17).
Abstract
Mitigating climate change and social injustice are critical, interwoven challenges. Climate change is driven by grossly unequal contributions to elevated greenhouse gas emissions among individuals, socioeconomic groups, and nations. Yet, its deleterious impacts disproportionately affect poor and less powerful nations, and the poor and the less powerful within each nation. This climate injustice prompts a call for mitigation strategies that buffer the poorest and the most vulnerable against climate change impacts. Unfortunately, all emissions mitigation strategies also reshape social, economic, political, and ecological processes in ways that may create climate change mitigation injustices—i.e., a unique set of injustices not caused by climate change, but by the strategies designed to stem it. Failing to stop climate change is not an answer—this will swamp all adverse impacts of even unjust mitigation in terms of the scope and scale of disastrous consequences. However, mitigation without justice will create uniquely negative consequences for the more vulnerable. The ensuing analysis systematically assesses how climate change mitigation strategies can generate or ameliorate injustices. We first examine how climate science and social justice interact within and among countries. We then ask what there is to learn from the available evidence on how emissions reductions, well-being, and equity have unfolded in a set of countries. Finally, we discuss the intersection between emissions reduction and mitigation justice through actions in important domains including energy, technology, transport, and food systems; nature-based solutions; and policy and governance.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2411231122
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal
Reyes-García, V., Pandit, R., Benessaiah, K., Agrawal, A., Garibaldi, L., Ifejika Speranza, C., O'Brien, K., Parrique, T., & Villasante, S. (2025). Transforming the economic landscape for global sustainability. Ecology and Society, 30(3).
Abstract
The economic system’s interdependent relationship with nature is fraught with contradictions. While over half of global GDP moderately or highly depends on nature and subsidies to sectors driving nature’s decline, e.g., agriculture, fossil fuels, forestry, amount to trillions of dollars annually, funding for biodiversity conservation and restoration remains woefully inadequate. Bridging the biodiversity funding gap is crucial but alone does not ensure ecosystems’ health. Beyond innovative economic instruments and the elimination or reform of harmful subsidies, a selective downscaling of production and consumption has been proposed as a transition strategy to lower the overall ecological footprint of the economic system. Only by aligning economic flows with the biophysical limits of the planet can we envision a future where human well-being coexists with ecological integrity.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.5751/es-16262-300302
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal
Ros-Tonen, M. A. F., Reed, J., Adeyanju, S., Anandi, A. M., Bayala, E. R. C., Djoudi, H., Ickowitz, A., Laumonier, Y., Moombe, K. B., Moeliono, M., O’Connor, A., Siangulube, F., Yanou, M. P., Yuliani, E. L., Zida, M., & Sunderland, T. (2025). Integrated Landscape Approaches: A Pathway Towards Just Sustainable Development?. Progress in Development Studies, 25(3-4), 231-254.
Abstract
Landscape approaches mobilize stakeholders across sectors and scales to negotiate development–conservation trade-offs and land-use allocation. Building on the concept of earth system justice, we examine how efforts to operationalize such approaches in Ghana, Zambia and Indonesia advance landscape justice. We observed contributions to procedural, recognitional and intergenerational justice, while interspecies justice remains overlooked. Yet, power asymmetries, exclusionary practices and institutional constraints hinder progress towards intragenerational and substantive—distributive, corrective, restorative and transformative justice. In contexts lacking commitment to transformative change, trade-offs are inevitable. Pursuing incremental change rather than ‘perfect’ justice may represent a second-best but more realistic pathway towards just landscape governance.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1177/14649934251413867
FLARE author(s): Terry Sunderland
Schleicher, J., van Soesbergen, A., Schaafsma, M., Dyngeland, C., Oldekop, J. A., Maioli, V., Latawiec, A. E., & Vira, B. (2025). Where Nature and Poverty Meet: Developing a Multidimensional Environment-Poverty Measure. The Journal of Development Studies, 61(6), 869-889.
Abstract
Despite the intrinsic relationships between the natural environment, poverty and human wellbeing, measures of poverty do not adequately account for environmental dimensions of wellbeing. This paper furthers theoretical debates about environment-poverty relationships by developing environmental dimensions and indicators for integration into multidimensional poverty indices. We demonstrate that this integration is practically possible using public datasets that are part of regular data collection efforts. Using Brazil as a case study, we develop an environmentally-adjusted multidimensional poverty measure that combines data on proximity to natural land, floods, droughts and landslide risks with information on health, education and living standards. Our results show that the integration of environmental dimensions into a poverty measure can provide different estimates of the incidence and distribution of poverty in a country, shifting attention to new target areas for poverty reduction strategies. Our measure provides a complementary and broader understanding of poverty than traditional poverty indices and could be used to track changes over time. Our measure therefore provides a potentially useful avenue to assess progress towards achieving multiple Sustainable Development Goals, while also accounting for environmental change.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2024.2434248
FLARE author(s): Johan Oldekop
Schneider Lecy, K., Gonzalez, F. A., Becker-Reshef, I., Chabala, L. M., Cheboi, J. J., Chimonyo, V. G. P., Danquah, E. Y., Demo, R., Eleblu, J. S. Y., Fraser, E., Gerrano, A. S., Gonhi, T., Griffin, T., Hemrich, G., Houdegbe, A. C., Kennedy, G., Mansaray, A. Y., Mbuya, M. N. N., Murphy, K., .. Snapp, S. (2025). Agricultural research approaches for crops that nourish by improving nutrition, soil health, resilience and prosperity. Nature Food, 6(12), 1103-1106.
Abstract
Addressing nutrition and climate resilience together requires transdisciplinary participatory action research with clear impact pathways for systems change that starts from the ground up. The concept of ‘crops that nourish’ is proposed here to offer a new mode of pursuing agricultural development. It involves iterative co-creation between farmers and researchers that prioritizes local needs and agency, human health, resilience and sustainability through a focus on opportunity crops.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-025-01271-3
FLARE author(s): Laura Vang Rasmussen
Segall, C., Oka, R., Ostermann, S., Safford, H., Gautam, S., Andersson, K., & Agrawal, A. (2025). Policy brief. Addressing Inequality Is Critical to Social and Climate Resilience. University of Notre Dame.
Abstract
Addressing social inequality is an important strategy for climate resilience as wealth disparities both heighten vulnerability to climate risks and deepen inequality over time. Recent research on large-scale historical and social outcomes under environmental pressure, including a study of 2,300 years of outcomes in changing Indian Ocean societies, reveals that the impacts of external challenges often turn on class inequalities. Although emissions reductions are ultimately necessary to address climate change, policies that strengthen social safety nets and limit concentrations of wealth are likely to improve social outcomes under climate stress.Policymakers should:Approach climate policy planning with social inequality reduction strategies as integral policy components – not ancillary items attached to emissions reductions approaches.Integrate distributive impacts into the design, implementation, and evaluation of climate policies.Leverage evidence from publicly funded archaeological research to improve public policy, outreach, and educational efforts related to social stability and sustained growth.Segall et al. Addressing Inequality Is Critical to Social and Climate Resilience. Keough School Policy Brief Series. Notre Dame, IN: Keough School of Global Affairs, 2025. https://doi.org/10.7274/30483332.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.7274/30483332
FLARE author(s): Arun Agrawal
Shin, S., Nam, Y., Wolf, S., Park, M. S., Okello, O., Mabaya, E., & Liao, C. (2025). Adding value to the voluntary carbon market through small-scale agroforestry. Climate and Development, 1-13.
Abstract
While the voluntary carbon market (VCM) has gained significant global attention as a dual solution for climate change and community development, critiques and adverse effects of carbon projects have been raised in the large-scale VCM initiatives, including displacement, unequal benefit sharing and marginalization. This research explores the potential of bottom-up approaches for both climate action and local development by examining small-scale carbon projects in Uganda. Fifty-four interviews and three focus group discussions were conducted with diverse stakeholders, including carbon project participants, community members, NGOs, cooperatives, governments, academics, international organizations and private actors. The finding shows that community-based and NGO-led carbon projects with traditional agroforestry practices foster decentralized governance, equitable benefit sharing, inclusive participation and ecosystem services. Smallholder farmers gain added revenue from both agroforestry practices and additional income generated through carbon sequestration. However, structural and operational challenges remain, such as low accessibility, risk of double-counting, profit-oriented implementation and economic insecurity. Nevertheless, this study suggests that small-scale initiatives hold the promise to add value in VCM by bridging local communities and the carbon market, thus contributing to equitable and inclusive climate solutions.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2025.2574074
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Sloan, E., Hajjar, R., & Davis, E. J. (2025). Equity in resilience: a case study of community resilience to wildfire in southwestern Oregon, United States. Ecology and Society, 30(1).
Abstract
In the fire-prone and fire-adapted landscape of the Rogue River Basin of southwestern Oregon, communities mobilize to prepare, respond, and recover from wildfire while modifying the current social and ecological system. Marginalized communities are often most affected and least prepared for disturbances of this kind, where racism, colonialism, and structural equities prevent meaningful inclusion and equitable allocation of resources. This research centers these voices in an empirical study of the situated resilience of the Rogue River Basin, rooted in the work of community-based organizations, land managers, conservation organizations, and private contractors. We take an embedded and qualitative approach, considering resilience “of what to what,” “for whom,” “by whom,” and “how” within the confines of the Rogue River Basin. We engaged those most affected by wildfire in the process of designing research, detailing experiences, and shaping outcomes. Relying on descriptive accounts and perceptions of what constitutes community resilience to wildfire, this research shows resilience is context-dependent with different paths to resilience for different groups. We co-produced multiple attributes of resilience, and describe how cross-cutting themes within attributes indicate perceived shifts from less-resilient to more resilient system states. For those in the Rogue Basin, more resilient systems involve local engagement in decision making, acknowledgment of the value of non-dominant knowledge systems, and reciprocity and shared resources between the community’s most vulnerable. We found that as actors sought more radical change through the creation of new systems, their capacity to address social inequities grew. Moreover, outcomes of this research challenge decision makers invested in community resilience to consider who benefits and is burdened not just by disturbance itself, but policies and programs designed for preparation, response, and recovery. Ultimately, in relying on lived experience, we construct policy and management recommendations in service of the communities most affected.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.5751/es-15862-300120
FLARE author(s): Reem Hajjar
Tebboth, M. G. L., Carmenta, R., Minas, A., Adelekan, A., Cao, X., Fullonton, A., Kinally, C., Cataldo, N. L., Mander, S., & Shelton, C. (2025). The ‘How’ of Transformation: Principles for a Justice-Centered Response to the Climate and Biodiversity Crises. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 67(3), 7-23.
Abstract
The need for societal transformations to address the myriad climate and biodiversity challenges is widely recognized. However, interventions designed to promote and enable these transformations are realized within hugely inequitable global patterns of environmental integrity and human well-being. In this article, we draw on insights informed by research undertaken across low- and middle-income countries. Using the global environmental justice framework to systematize our analysis, we explore how interventions intended to support transformations in the climate, energy, transport, waste, and biodiversity spaces can result in the reproduction of multiple dimensions of harms. Through our analysis, we identify four principles to support more just transformations: (1) recognize plural perspectives, (2) address inequitable structures to support fairer distributions of costs and benefits, (3) plan for perverse outcomes, and (4) empower local people and institutions. We hope that these principles and the analysis from which they are drawn will be useful for practitioners, policymakers, and researchers interested in transformation, and will support more just responses and outcomes to the climate and biodiversity crises.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1080/00139157.2025.2470584
FLARE author(s): Rachel Carmenta
Watts, M., Cooper, G., Purushotham, A., Shankar, B., Bhogadi, S., Harris-Fry, H., Kadiyala, S., Gupta, A., Bajaj, S., Bhushan, N., Kumar, V., Chhatre, A., Mamidi, R. S., & Fivian, E. (2025). The interplay between the market food environments and barriers to adequate diets for women in rural Bihar, India. VeriXiv.
Abstract
Background Understanding the barriers that women in rural, low-income contexts experience in acquiring nutrient-dense foods (NDFs) is fundamental to improving nutrition. However, the current evidence is primarily limited to quantitative studies. Qualitative insights are important for advancing and deepening our understanding of individuals’ lived realities and informing contextually relevant strategies that help overcome the barriers that women face. Methods Therefore, we qualitatively explored how gender norms and other socioeconomic inequalities shape women’s interactions with their market food environment in the context of NDF acquisition in rural Bihar, India’s poorest and most undernourished state. We also considered men’s experiences to better understand gendered differences in barriers. In total, we sampled 12 villages across two districts (Bhojpur and Samastipur) and conducted 12 focus group discussions and 76 in-depth interviews with women and their spouses. Results The unaffordability of NDFs, a function of low income and high market price, was the primary barrier constraining NDF acquisition for both men and women, and was most pronounced for the poorest, and greatest under price spikes during Bihar’s rainy season. However, women experience unique challenges related to affordability due to their exclusion from markets, driven by restrictive gender norms that stigmatise their market participation, and reinforced by their perception of markets as unsafe environments. This situation forced some women to rely on expensive local sources or incur greater costs travelling to distant markets where they were less recognisable, diminishing food budgets for NDF purchases. Affordability barriers for the poorest women were also compounded by gender norms that restricted women’s livelihood opportunities and pay discrimination in casual labour. Conclusion Our qualitative insights imply that providing women with access to a cash transfer scheme, alongside the development of safer and more inclusive markets for women, could enhance women’s NDF acquisition and nutritional wellbeing.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.12688/verixiv.1719.1
FLARE author(s): Ashwini Chhatre
Wei, D., Castro, L. G., Chhatre, A., Tuninetti, M., & Davis, K. F. (2025). Swapping rice for alternative cereals can reduce climate-induced production losses and increase farmer incomes in India. Nature Communications, 16(1), 2108.
Abstract
The rising homogeneity of global crop supply has increased vulnerability to climatic and economic disruptions. While substantial work has examined yield variations in relation to climate variability, little is known about the influence of harvested area on production stability. To investigate this, here we take the example of monsoon cereal production in India, which has steadily shifted towards climate-sensitive rice and away from alternative cereals (finger millet, maize, pearl millet, and sorghum). We find that variations in harvested area are significantly associated with current and past price fluctuations for all cereals except rice. This suggests that farmer decisions based on economic factors may exercise great influence in determining variations in harvested area. We also show that optimized allocations of harvested area can reduce climate-induced production loss by 11% or improve farmer net profit by 11% while maintaining calorie production and cropland area. Such improvements would be possible by reducing harvested areas dedicated to rice and increasing areas allocated to alternative cereals. Our findings show that strategies using harvested area to address cereal yield fluctuations and improve farm profits could complement ongoing efforts to improve alternative cereal yields and stabilize cereal production. Production stability depends on both yield and harvested area. Swapping rice for climate resilient cereals such as millets, maize, and sorghum in India could reduce climate-induced losses by 11% and increase farmer profits by 11%, achievable through targeted economic incentives.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-57420-6
FLARE author(s): Ashwini Chhatre
Wu, P., Liu, M., Zheng, M., Liao, C., Hua, X., Fei, D., Bai, Y., Zhou, Y., Zhou, Y., & Huang, Q. (2025). Relocation for improved ecosystem service and human wellbeing? Evidence from Fuping, Hebei, China. Journal of Geographical Sciences, 35(7), 1556-1574.
Abstract
Migration is a potential strategy to reduce poverty in the Global South. In China, the Poverty-alleviation Relocation (PAR) is a government-led, large-scale migration initiative aimed at eliminating poverty and promoting environmental sustainability. To examine the ecological and socio-economic effects of the PAR, we quantified the changes in five types of ecosystem services (ES) as well as the subjective well-being of rural residents in Fuping county, Hebei province of China, by using ES mapping, household survey, and semi-structured interviews. We found that the PAR improves people's quality of life, with the well-being scores associated with transportation, communication, education, and healthcare increasing by 0.45-0.81. Additionally, the PAR enhances the supply of ES, evidenced by the increases in four types of ES in both in-migration and out-migration areas. The ES growth rates in in-migration areas ranged from 0.7% to 3.9%, while in out-migration areas, the rates ranged from 0.4% to 2.5%. However, the changes in income and food well-being are minimal, with scores at 0 and 0.32, respectively. More importantly, the elderly and low-educated residents experience minimal improvements in well-being after relocation. Our findings suggest that for other developing countries seeking to adopt PAR, it is crucial to provide targeted support for livelihood transitions, particularly for marginalized social groups, restore out-migration areas, and strengthen cross-regional cooperation to better address ecological constraints on livelihoods.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-025-2384-6
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
Yuan, Y., Santamouris, M., Xu, D., Geng, X., Li, C., Cheng, W., Su, L., Xiong, P., Fan, Z., Wang, X., & Liao, C. (2025). Surface urban heat island effects intensify more rapidly in lower income countries. npj Urban Sustainability, 5(1).
Abstract
As urbanization proceeds globally in recent decades, a nuanced understanding of the differential impacts of the urban heat island (UHI) effect across income country groups is crucial. Through an analysis of ~5 million urban grids from 2003 to 2018, we discovered that the average surface urban heat island intensity (SUHII) increased at a rate of 0.021 °C annually. Despite the extensive areas of SUHII increase in higher-income countries, particularly the US and China, it is the low and lower-middle-income countries that exhibited a more pronounced net increase in intensity. Specifically, 27% of urban grids in low-income countries witnessed the most substantial net increase during the daytime, while 19% of urban grids in lower-middle-income countries led the surge at nighttime. Higher-income countries’ SUHII growth reflects their pace of urbanization, but the trend of intensifying urban heat expands faster in lower-income economies. Such findings underscore an impending UHI challenge for lower-middle and low-income nations, emphasizing the need for targeted mitigation and adaptation strategies.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.1038/s42949-025-00198-9
FLARE author(s): Chuan Liao
2024
Alpuche Álvarez, Y. A., Jepsen, M. R., Müller, D., Rasmussen, L. V., & Sun, Z. (2024). Unraveling the complexity of land use change and path dependency in agri-environmental schemes for small farmers: A serious game approach. Land use Policy, 139, 107067.
Abstract
This study investigates how Maya farmers in Mexico respond to agri-environmental subsidies aimed at promoting sustainable land use decisions. We do so through a serious games approach, using a tailor-designed board game to identify the land use behaviors of Maya farmers. The game simulated three different subsidy programs promoting mechanized agriculture, forest conservation, and agroforestry. We find that farmers tend to clear forested areas in response to agroforestry subsidies. Also, we observe that land use decisions are path-dependent, with farmers adhering to traditional and mechanized agriculture and hesitant to engage in conservation and agroforestry. These findings highlight the potential of serious games as a tool to improve understandings of how farmers make land use decisions and the resulting land use change patterns. Specifically, our findings show that serious games are well suited to understand how path dependency in decision-making can influence the effect of subsidies – and whether subsidies thereby achieve the intended goals, such as reduced deforestation.
Amadu, F.O., Miller, D.C. Food security effects of forest sector participation in rural Liberia. Food Sec. 16, 1099–1124 (2024).
Abstract
Forests can help rural households cope with food insecurity challenges in the face of climate change while also sequestering carbon and advancing other sustainability objectives in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). As such, participation in the forestry sector can contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially on hunger and food security (SDG 2) in forest rich, but economically poor areas of LMICs. However, analysis of the effects of forest sector participation on food security in such contexts remain limited. Here we estimate the effects of participation in forest-based activities like collection and processing of timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) on household food security in Liberia, the most forested country in West Africa. We applied endogenous switching poisson regression to data from 1408 households living in the proximity of forests included in Liberia’s 2019 national household forest survey to estimate the effect of forest sector participation on food security (in terms of reduction in the number of months households reportedly had insufficient food). Results show that forest-sector participation reduced the number of months households had insufficient food by 84% (about 2.7 months). Heterogeneity analyses show that NTFPs affected food security by 80% (about 2.5 months) compared to timber and wood products, which had a 66% effect size (about 2.1 months) on average. Our results provide new, national-scale evidence on the role of forests in enhancing food security in Liberia and suggest the importance of forest sector participation for food security and achieving SDG 2 more generally.
Amadu, Festus O., Miller, Daniel C. The impact of forest product collection and processing on household income in rural Liberia. Forest Policy and Economics, Volume 158.
Abstract
Forests and trees can provide a means to alleviate poverty while simultaneously addressing climate change and other sustainability goals. However, empirical evidence on the income and livelihoods effects of collecting and processing forest products (including timber and non-timber forest products), remains limited. Evidence is especially sparse across multiple spatial scales within countries and in certain regions, such as West Africa. We respond to this knowledge gap by estimating the impacts of forest product collection and processing on smallholder household income and the spatial variability of impacts across counties and regional clusters in Liberia, the most forested country in West Africa. We applied endogenous treatment effect and multilevel mixed effects regression to survey data from a sample of 2983 forest proximate households across Liberia in 2019. Results show that the collection and processing of forest products increased household income by 139% with statistically significant variation across counties by 26%. Pathway analyses show that participation in such enterprises affected household income through both timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs), with NTFPs having higher impacts at 167% compared to timber at 115%. This study demonstrates that involvement in the forest sector can significantly enhance rural incomes and suggests that forests may form a viable pathway to realize poverty alleviation and sustainability goals in Liberia, elsewhere in West Africa, and beyond.
Bispo, P. da C., Picoli, M. C. A., Marimon, B. S., Marimon Junior, B. H., Peres, C. A., Oliveras Menor, I., Silva, D. E., Machado, F. de F., Alencar, A. A. C., Almeida, C. A. de, Anderson, L. O., Aragão, L. E. O. C., Breunig, F. M., Bustamante, M., Dalagnol, R., Diniz-Filho, J. A. F., Ferreira, L. G., Ferreira, M. E., Fisch, G., Galvão, L. S., … Silva-Junior, C. H. L. (2024). Overlooking vegetation loss outside forests imperils the Brazilian Cerrado and other non-forest biomes. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 8, 12–13.
Abstract
The global emphasis on halting forest loss has failed to recognize the biodiversity and ecosystem services provision of non-forest biomes such as the Brazilian Cerrado. Here, we stress the urgent need to address their destruction, including at the upcoming UN Conference of the Parties (COP28), and for coordinated efforts to protect these non-forest ecosystems amid the climate crisis.
The relentless destruction of non-forest biomes not only refers to the widespread conversion of native vegetation but also to historically neglected biodiversity-rich ecosystems. The Cerrado biome (Brazilian savannah) — a global biodiversity hotspot, with over 4,800 plant and vertebrate endemic species — is the most active frontier of agricultural expansion in Brazil. More than half of the original native Cerrado vegetation has already been lost and, in 2022, the Cerrado experienced the highest conversion rate in 7 years: 1.07 million hectares of natural area was converted. Although DETER (a near-real-time deforestation-alert system for the Cerrado and Amazon, developed by the Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE)) reported a 33.6% reduction in deforestation alerts in the Brazilian Amazon during the first half of 2023 (compared to 2022), the Cerrado experienced a 21% increase in deforestation and conversion alerts during the same period. In 2022, PRODES (Brazil’s Satellite Native Vegetation Monitoring System, which is another monitoring programme run by INPE) recorded 10,681 km2 of Cerrado deforestation, which is close in size to the vegetation lost across the Amazon (despite the Cerrado being less than half the area of the Amazon); this marks a third consecutive yearly increase. The deforestation rates in the Cerrado are higher in its northern part (a region known as ‘MATOPIBA’, for Maranhão, Tocantins, Piauí and Bahia), where 71% of the loss of native Cerrado vegetation in 2022 took place— including in lands that are exposed to climate change and susceptible to desertification.
da Conceição Bispo, P., Picoli, M.C.A., Marimon, B.S. et al. Overlooking vegetation loss outside forests imperils the Brazilian Cerrado and other non-forest biomes. Nat Ecol Evol 8, 12–13 (2024).
Summary
The global emphasis on halting forest loss has failed to recognize the biodiversity and ecosystem services provision of non-forest biomes such as the Brazilian Cerrado. Here, we stress the urgent need to address their destruction, including at the upcoming UN Conference of the Parties (COP28), and for coordinated efforts to protect these non-forest ecosystems amid the climate crisis.
Erbaugh, JT., Chang, H.C., Masuda, Y.J., Ribot, J. (2024). Communication and Deliberation for Environmental Governance. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 49:367-393.
Abstract
Environmental governance occurs through and is shaped by communication. We propose a typology of public communication, classifying it by directionality (one-way or two-way) and objective (informational or operational). We then review how communication types influence individuals’ conceptual frames, values, and environmental behaviors. Though one-way communication is common, its impact is often limited to influencing conceptual frames. Research on two-way informational communication demonstrates a greater ability to align conceptual frames and values among individuals, and research on two-way operational communication demonstrates the greatest impact on conceptual frames, values, and environmental behaviors. Factors that affect the impact of communication include the medium through which it occurs, trust, timing, and social-material context. Among these, our review considers new directions in public communication research that focus on the role of digital platforms, misinformation, and disinformation. We conclude by synthesizing research on deliberative communication, a case of communication among citizens guided by democratic ideals.
Spriha, P., Erbaugh, J.T. (2024) Driving sustainable uptake: a systematic review of global literature on policies governing woody biomass for energy. Discover Sustainability, 5:28.
Abstract
Woody biomass has gained increased attention as a source of renewable energy. However, its categorization as a sustainable source of energy remains controversial, as its carbon neutrality depends on its end use, moisture content, bulk density, and the distance between the source of biomass and its end use. Due to these mediating factors, policies largely shape its sustainability and ability to mitigate emissions. This paper organizes and evaluates the current state of research through a systematic review of global literature from 2011 to 2021 (n = 345) on the governance of the production, transportation, sale, and use of woody biomass for energy. Peer-reviewed literature emphasizes the role of woody biomass as a decentralized energy source for individual households and communities, focusing on its harvest, transport, and localized energy conversion. Policies primarily address land management and energy infrastructure rather than direct emissions reduction. Research gaps in policy within the Global South underscore the need to examine biomass regulation in regions with limited energy diversity. The key factors that drive the sustainable uptake of woody biomass include strict sustainability criteria, fiscal incentives, technological development, and wood utilization from across its value chain. Effective policy implementation increases rural employment, boosts rural economies, provides energy security to remote areas, improves overall environmental sustainability, reduces emissions, and improves land management practices. Our systematic review reveals that future research should focus on improving conversion efficiencies in small-scale systems, reducing emissions in the international trade of woody biomass, and using the wood value chain to increase the profitability of bioenergy products.
Erbaugh, JT., Eggen, M., Heilmayr, R., Anderson, P., Armson, R., Austin, K., Azmi, R., Bayliss, P., Burns, D., Ekaputri, A.D., Gaveau, D.L.A., Grabs, J., Greenbury, A., Gulagnar, I., Hanu, M.A., Hill, T., Leegwater, M., Limberg, G., Opal, C., Putri, V., Rodrigues, J., Rosoman, G., Satar, M., Sheun, S.S., Rafik, R., Walen, S., Carlson, K.M. (2024) Smallholder participation in zero-deforestation supply chain initiatives in the Indonesian palm oil sector: Challenges, opportunities, and limitations. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 12(1): 00099
Abstract
As actors in tropical agricultural commodity supply chains implement commitments to end deforestation, they risk exacerbating social inequities by excluding smallholder farmers, who are important producers of many tropical commodity crops. Here, we explore the potential for independent oil palm smallholders in Indonesia to participate in zero-deforestation supply chains. We find that these smallholders are underrepresented in the share of zero-deforestation compliant oil palm production. We then synthesize perspectives from key actors in the oil palm industry including smallholders and their representatives, palm oil producing and consulting companies, nongovernmental organizations, and academic researchers. Based on these perspectives, we find that challenges to smallholder supply chain participation include limitations in knowledge (e.g., smallholders may not know the location of protected forests), institutional issues (e.g., absence of trust between oil palm growing companies and smallholder farmers), and financial constraints (e.g., the opportunity cost of not clearing forest). To address these shortcomings, we encourage oil palm growing and milling companies to take the lead on incentivizing, supporting, and facilitating smallholder participation in zero-deforestation initiatives. Specifically, these companies could build and use their technical and political resources to identify and map all forests in their entire supply shed and ensure small producers have land rights that enable participation in zero-deforestation supply chains. These policy levers would need to be combined with economic incentives such as access to improved inputs or price premia for their products. However, we caution that smallholder integration into existing zero-deforestation supply chains alone is unlikely to result in significant additional forest conservation at scale in Indonesia due to selection bias, leakage, and existing land tenure norms. Community-led and jurisdictional or landscape-scale supply chain initiatives that acknowledge multi-commodity production are more likely to provide equitable and just avenues for Indonesian smallholder farmers to steward forest resources.
Hajjar, R., McGinley, K., Charnley, S., Frey, G. E., Hovis, M., Cubbage, F. W., Schelhas, J., & Kornhauser, K. (2024). Characterizing community forests in the United States. Journal of Forestry, 122(3), 273–284.
Abstract
Research on community forests (CFs), primarily governed and managed by local forest users in the United States, is limited, despite their growth in numbers over the past decade. We conducted a survey to inventory CFs in the United States and better understand their ownership and governance structures, management objectives, benefits, and financing. The ninety-eight CFs in our inventory are on private, public, and tribal lands. They had various ways of soliciting input from, or sharing decision-making authority with, local groups, organizations, and citizens. Recreation and environmental services were the most important management goals, but timber production occurred on more than two-thirds of CFs, contributing to income on many CFs, along with a diversity of other income sources to fund operations. We discuss the difficulties in creating a comprehensive CF inventory and typology given the diversity of models that exist, reflecting local social and environmental conditions and the bottom-up nature of community forestry in the United States.
Study Implications: Despite their small footprint in the United States, community forests are a rapidly developing model of forest ownership, governance, and management that helps protect forestlands and open space and demonstrates how market and nonmarket forest goods and services can be produced for broad and enduring community benefits. This study inventories and characterizes community forests in the United States to increase understanding of this model, its prevalence, and its potential. It provides a baseline of information that serves as a foundation for further exploration and research on the impacts and contributions of community forests.
Reem Hajjar, Kathleen McGinley, Susan Charnley, Gregory E Frey, Meredith Hovis, Frederick W Cubbage, John Schelhas, Kailey Kornhauser, Characterizing Community Forests in the United States, Journal of Forestry, 2024.
Abstract
Research on community forests (CFs), primarily governed and managed by local forest users in the United States, is limited, despite their growth in numbers over the past decade. We conducted a survey to inventory CFs in the United States and better understand their ownership and governance structures, management objectives, benefits, and financing. The ninety-eight CFs in our inventory are on private, public, and tribal lands. They had various ways of soliciting input from, or sharing decision-making authority with, local groups, organizations, and citizens. Recreation and environmental services were the most important management goals, but timber production occurred on more than two-thirds of CFs, contributing to income on many CFs, along with a diversity of other income sources to fund operations. We discuss the difficulties in creating a comprehensive CF inventory and typology given the diversity of models that exist, reflecting local social and environmental conditions and the bottom-up nature of community forestry in the United States.
Hajjar, R., Frey, G. E., Charnley, S., McGinley, K., Schelhas, J., & Tarr, N. A. (2024). “Community forests” in the United States – How do we know one when we see one? Society & Natural Resources, 37(11–12), 1240–1252
Abstract
Community forests (CFs) involve communities in decision-making about, management of and access to forests, and have potential to benefit both communities and forests. However, they lack a single definition, clear distinction from related topics, or method for identification. This perspectives article explores historical and current literature on CFs and proposes a conceptual framework for understanding CFs and related concepts in the U.S. context. Through that exploration, we propose a conceptual framework for understanding their meaning and relationship. We propose three potential pathways for identifying CFs in the U.S., each with advantages and disadvantages. CFs can be identified by using a criteria and indicators approach; by participation in programs or networks designated for CFs; or by their own self-identification as a CF. We suggest that using a hybrid of these approaches will produce the most robust process for knowing a community forest when we see one.
Hajjar, R., Smith, A. C., Kanel, K. R., Fox, J., Tuladhar, S., & Van Den Hoek, J. (2024). Out-migration, agricultural abandonment, and community forest management: Drivers of afforestation in privately managed land in Nepal. Applied Geography, 167, 103275.
Abstract
Nepal's forest cover nearly doubled over the last three decades. While Community Forest (CF) management and agricultural abandonment are primary drivers of forest cover expansion, the contribution of afforestation on privately managed land is not well documented. We mapped forest cover change from 1988 through 2016 in 40 privately managed sites that transitioned from agriculture to forest and assessed how agricultural abandonment influenced private land management and afforestation. We used a mixed method analysis to integrate our 29-year Landsat satellite image-based record of annual forest cover with interview data on historical land cover and land use dynamics from 65 land managers in Bagmati Province. We find that privately managed land accounted for 37% of local forest cover gain, with mean forest area within private forests growing from 9% to 59%. Land managers identified two factors driving these gains on private land: implementation of CF management in adjacent government forests and out-migration. These previously undocumented linkages between forest cover gain on private land and CF management merits further research in community forests and calls for greater policy and technical support for small-scale timber growers and rural households who rely on private forests for income generation.
Hajjar, R., & Gonzales Tovar, J. (2024). Towards a more just approach to community forestry initiatives: Confronting contradictions, trade-offs, and threats to fairness. Biological Conservation, 295, 110665.
Abstract
Community forest management (CFM) has gained prominence globally and shown great value as a community-based conservation approach to protecting and sustainably managing forest ecosystems while, at the same time, devolving tenure rights to local populations and stimulating local livelihoods and economies. Given CFM's relative successes and socioeconomic goals, it is often assumed to be an inherently just approach. Here, we challenge that assumption. We present a framework rooted in environmental justice to uncover how some initiatives can perpetuate or exacerbate unfairness and thus undermine the core purpose and spirit of CFM. We put forward three questions on the fairness of CFM programs. First, we call to question the imposition of new CFM-related restrictions and rules, considering Indigenous and local communities' legal autonomy and/or long-standing de facto rights. Second, we interrogate the burden of CFM-related economic costs and opportunity costs, in light of communities' poverty conditions and vulnerable livelihoods. Third, we examine the fairness of focusing on the role of local communities in tackling deforestation and forest degradation, given these groups might not be the ones primarily responsible for those problems. Our discussion exposes several contradictions, trade-offs and justice implications of CFM that have remained largely unrecognized. We conclude by providing recommendations for a more just approach that centers a rights-needs-merit rationale. Our analysis is relevant for community-based conservation efforts around the globe.
Jung, S., & Rogers, M. (2024). Mobile phone adoption, deforestation, and agricultural land use in Uganda. World Development, 179, 106618.
Abstract
Increased access to information technology changes economic opportunities and may indirectly lead to changes in rural households’ land use and the local natural environment. With the expansion of service coverage and decreasing cost of mobile phone service plans, particularly in Africa, it is critical to understand the implications of the rapid uptake of mobile phones on the environment. In this paper, we estimate the relationship between mobile phone adoption and deforestation in rural areas of Uganda over the 2009 to 2013 period. We exploit heterogeneity in household adoption of mobile phones using four rounds of the Uganda National Panel Survey (2009, 2010, 2011, and 2013). We find that a 1% increase in the share of households owning a mobile phone is associated with a 1.2% increase in deforestation within a 5-kilometer radius of these households. At the household level, those acquiring a mobile phone see an average of 8% increase in crop cultivation area, driven by households whose main source of income is not agricultural production. These results suggest that mobile phone adoption may lead to sizeable adverse impacts on the environment via an expansion of crop cultivation areas. The estimated increase in deforestation translates to approximately 16,000 tons of lost carbon storage over two years, valued between $3 and $11 million.
Liao, C., Jung, S., Brown, D. G., & Agrawal, A. (2024). Does land tenure change accelerate deforestation? A matching-based four-country comparison. Ecological Economics, 215, 108011.
Abstract
The scale and pace of land tenure change for agricultural development, often known as ‘land grabbing’ or ‘global land rush,’ are historically unprecedented. Control over millions of hectares of land has shifted over the past decade for the production of food, fiber, and biofuel. However, the rapidly growing body of research on land tenure change provides few rigorous assessments of deforestation across multiple countries with distinct biophyisical and socioeconomic characteristics. In this paper, based on spatial boundaries of land transactions (LTs) in Cambodia, Ethiopia, Liberia, and Peru, we investigate their association with deforestation using a pixel-based matching approach. Our findings suggest that the context, size, and distribution of LTs and the associated deforestation patterns vary substantially across the four countries. Land tenure change significantly accelerates deforestation in Cambodia and Liberia, but such acceleration is insignificant in Ethiopia. In Peru, we observe the opposite trend, where areas adjacent to LTs experience higher deforestation than areas within. Our analysis reveals how patterns and outcomes of LTs are linked to country characteristics and contexts, and suggests that sweeping generalizations about positive or negative consequences of LTs on deforestation and possibly other socioenvironmental outcomes need to attend more closely to specific patterns and drivers of LTs.
Liao, C., & Agrawal, A. (2024). Towards a science of ‘land grabbing’. Land Use Policy, 137, 107002
Abstract
In the past two decades, large-scale land transactions (LSLTs), commonly known as land grabs or large-scale land acquisitions, have been pursued by agricultural investors and host-country governments in Lower- and Middle-Income Countries (LMIC) to boost crop yield. Existing knowledge on LSLTs is highly diverse, generated by scholars taking a wide range of perspectives and frameworks. However, the global patterns of LSLT-related research and their potential shortcomings remain under-investigated. In this paper, we analyze 370 peer-reviewed papers on LSLTs to advance this field of knowledge towards a science of ‘land grabbing’. Our findings reveal that 1) research on LSLTs displays geographical imbalances; 2) global statistics do not fully capture the complexity of LSLTs on the ground; 3) different disciplinary interests and theoretical traditions result in different use of terms in referring to LSLTs and divergent impressions of their social consequences; and 4) the environmental consequences of LSLTs are under-studied relatively. We suggest that a better understanding of LSLTs could result from greater engagement with each discipline’s strength and epistemic frameworks.
Miller, D. C., Djenontin, I. N. S., & Larson, A. M., (2024). Trends in forest livelihoods research – Taking stock in 2024. Forest Policy and Economics, 169, 103337.
Abstract
Forests are increasingly prominent in global policy discussions. Conservation, sustainable management, and restoration of forests are widely understood as necessary to reach climate and biodiversity goals. This attention to forests is vital. However, it risks overshadowing or, worse, undermining the livelihoods and well-being of the hundreds of millions of people worldwide who live in or near forests, especially Indigenous Peoples and marginalized groups. New international commitments to plant trees and halt and reverse deforestation and degradation are intensifying demands on forests and other lands. What are the implications of these shifts for the rights, livelihoods, and wellbeing of those living in forest and tree-based landscapes? What new thinking and evidence exists to help advance knowledge and policy on this topic? And what do current dynamics suggest for future research? The articles in this Special Issue on “Trends in Forest Livelihoods Research” respond to these questions. This introduction contextualizes current research at the forest-livelihoods nexus and provides an overview of the 18 articles compiled in this volume. We identify three key themes and two cross-cutting social sustainability concerns that emerge from this collected work. We conclude by highlighting implications for forest-related policy that better supports local livelihoods and broader sustainable development goals, and by identifying pressing research needs.
Newton, P., Tanure, T., de Abreu Campos, R. F., dos Reis, J. C., Benzeev, R., de Aragão Ribeiro Rodrigues, R., & Camilo de Oliveira, A. M. H. (2024). Correction to: Farmers’ perceptions of climate change affect their adoption of sustainable agricultural technologies in the Brazilian Amazon and Atlantic Forest biomes. Climatic Change, 177, 20.
Abstract
Farmers’ perceptions about climate change may help to explain the farming systems that they adopt and the effectiveness of their production practices in mitigating the negative impacts of the agricultural sector on the environment. This study analyzed the perceptions of 273 farmers participating in the Sustainable Rural Project—a large-scale climate change mitigation project in Brazil—that promoted the adoption of sustainable agricultural technologies in the Brazilian Amazon and Atlantic Forest biomes. Using a principal component analysis, we developed a Climate Change Perception Indicator (CCPI): an index to categorize farmers according to their perceptions about the impacts of climate change on agriculture. Our results indicate that farmers’ motivations to adopt sustainable agricultural practices were strongly driven by economic factors. We also found evidence to suggest that political agendas can influence farmers’ environmental perceptions. Moreover, older farmers with a higher level of education and more experience tended to demonstrate a stronger concern about climate change. However, the level of adoption of sustainable agricultural technologies was generally low, and a lack of technical knowledge and financial support may hinder widespread adoption of these practices. Thus, an approach that includes consideration of farmers’ perceptions about the impacts of climate change on their business may improve outcomes from the Sustainable Rural Project and other projects that aim to enhance the adoption of sustainable agriculture technologies.
Oldekop, J., Vansant, E., den Braber, B., Hall, C., Kamoto, J., Reiner, F., & Rasmussen, L. V. (2024). Food-sourcing from on-farm trees mediates positive relationships between tree cover and dietary quality in Malawi. Nature Food, 5, 661–666.
Abstract
Food security policies often overlook the potential of trees to provide micronutrient-rich foods. Here, through causal mediation analysis, we show the positive effect of tree cover on micronutrient adequacy, explained by people sourcing food from on-farm trees. Detailed survey data (n = 460 households with repeated surveys) from Malawi were linked to high-resolution (3 m) tree-cover data to capture forest and non-forest trees. Our findings support integrating nutrition and landscape restoration policies.
Oldekop, J. A., Bispo, P. da C., Picoli, M. C. A., Schwantes Marimon, B., Marimon Junior, B. H., Peres, C. A., Oliveras Menor, I., Silva, D. E., Machado, F. de F., Alencar, A. A. C., de Almeida, C. A., Anderson, L. O., Aragão, L. E. O. C., Breunig, F. M., Bustamante, M., Dalagnol, R., Diniz-Filho, J. A. F., Ferreira, L. G., Ferreira, M. E., Fisch, G., Galvão, L. S., Giarolla, A., Gomes, A. R., de Marco Junior, P., Kuck, T. N., Lehmann, C. E. R., Lemes, M. R., Liesenberg, V., Loyola, R., Macedo, M. N., Mendes, F. de S., Miranda, S. do C., Morton, D. C., Moura, Y. M., Ramos-Neto, M. B., Rosan, T. M., Saatchi, S., Sano, E. E., Segura-Garcia, C., Shimbo, J. Z., Silva, T. S. F., Trevisan, D. P., Zimbres, B., Wiederkehr, N. C., & Silva-Junior, C. H. L. (2024). Overlooking vegetation loss outside forests imperils the Brazilian Cerrado and other non-forest biomes. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 8, 12–13.
Abstract
The global emphasis on halting forest loss has failed to recognize the biodiversity and ecosystem services provision of non-forest biomes such as the Brazilian Cerrado. Here, we stress the urgent need to address their destruction, including at the upcoming UN Conference of the Parties (COP28), and for coordinated efforts to protect these non-forest ecosystems amid the climate crisis.
The relentless destruction of non-forest biomes not only refers to the widespread conversion of native vegetation but also to historically neglected biodiversity-rich ecosystems. The Cerrado biome (Brazilian savannah) — a global biodiversity hotspot, with over 4,800 plant and vertebrate endemic species— is the most active frontier of agricultural expansion in Brazil. More than half of the original native Cerrado vegetation has already been lost and, in 2022, the Cerrado experienced the highest conversion rate in 7 years: 1.07 million hectares of natural area was converted. Although DETER (a near-real-time deforestation-alert system for the Cerrado and Amazon, developed by the Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE)) reported a 33.6% reduction in deforestation alerts in the Brazilian Amazon during the first half of 2023 (compared to 2022), the Cerrado experienced a 21% increase in deforestation and conversion alerts during the same period. In 2022, PRODES (Brazil’s Satellite Native Vegetation Monitoring System, which is another monitoring programme run by INPE) recorded 10,681 km2 of Cerrado deforestation, which is close in size to the vegetation lost across the Amazon (despite the Cerrado being less than half the area of the Amazon); this marks a third consecutive yearly increase. The deforestation rates in the Cerrado are higher in its northern part (a region known as ‘MATOPIBA’, for Maranhão, Tocantins, Piauí and Bahia), where 71% of the loss of native Cerrado vegetation in 2022 took place— including in lands that are exposed to climate change and susceptible to desertification.
Oldekop, J. A., Braber, D. B., Devenish, K., Godar, J., Nolte, C., Schmoeller, M., & Evans, K. L. (2024). Socio-economic and environmental trade-offs in Amazonian protected areas and Indigenous territories revealed by assessing competing land uses. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 8, 1482–1492.
Abstract
Protected area (PA) assessments rarely evaluate socio-economic and environmental impacts relative to competing land uses, limiting understanding of socio-environmental trade-offs from efforts to protect 30% of the globe by 2030. Here we assess deforestation and poverty outcomes (fiscal income, income inequality, sanitation and literacy) between 2000 and 2010 of strict PAs (SPAs), sustainable-use PAs (SUPAs) and Indigenous territories (ITs) compared with different land uses (agriculture and mining concessions) across ~5,500 census tracts in the Brazilian Legal Amazon. ITs reduced deforestation relative to all alternative land uses (48–83%) but had smaller socio-economic benefits compared with other protection types and land uses (18–36% depending on outcome), indicating that Indigenous communities experience socio-economic trade-offs. By contrast, SUPAs, and potentially SPAs, did not reduce deforestation relative to small-scale agriculture (landholdings <10 ha) but did so relative to larger agricultural landholdings (70–82%). Critically, these reductions in deforestation frequently occurred without negative socio-economic outcomes. By contrast, ITs and SUPAs protected against deforestation from mining, but at the cost of smaller improvements in income and inequality. Our results suggest that although PAs in the Brazilian Legal Amazon substantially reduced deforestation without compromising local socio-economic development, efforts to secure Indigenous rights need additional interventions to ensure these communities are not further disadvantaged.
Prakash, A., Chhatre, A., Neelam, G., Kumar, S. G., & Duddu, A. (2024). Lakhpati Kisan: Transforming Agriculture-Based Livelihoods for Smallholder Farmers in India. Routledge India.
Abstract
Vintaben Naranbhai Bumbadiya is a marginal farmer from Chota Bamdodara village of Danta block in Banaskantha District of Gujarat. She lives with her husband, mother-in-law, and seven children and holds 0.15 hectares of land. Agriculture is the only source of livelihood for her and her family. Before joining the Lakhpati Kisan Programme (LKP), Vintaben practised traditional farming in the Kharif season, mainly sowing maize with a mix of black gram, pigeon pea, and cotton and, if rainfall was good, wheat in the Rabi season. She earned Rs. 30,000 per year from agriculture.
Full Paper: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003258018
FLARE author(s): Ashwini Chhatre
Rasmussen, L. V., Braber, D. B., Hall, C., Brandt, M., Reiner, F., & Mugabowindekwe, M. (2024). Even low levels of tree cover improve dietary quality in West Africa. PNAS Nexus, 3(2), 67
Abstract
Forests are attracting attention as a promising avenue to provide nutritious and “free” food without damaging the environment. Yet, we lack knowledge on the extent to which this holds in areas with sparse tree cover, such as in West Africa. This is largely due to the fact that existing methods are poorly designed to quantify tree cover in drylands. In this study, we estimate how various levels of tree cover across West Africa affect children's (aged 12–59 months) consumption of vitamin A–rich foods. We do so by combining detailed tree cover estimates based on PlanetScope imagery (3 m resolution) with Demographic Health Survey data from >15,000 households. We find that the probability of consuming vitamin A–rich foods increases from 0.45 to 0.53 with an increase in tree cover from the median value of 8.8 to 16.8% (which is the tree cover level at which the predicted probability of consuming vitamin A–rich foods is the highest). Moreover, we observe that the effects of tree cover vary across poverty levels and ecoregions. The poor are more likely than the non-poor to consume vitamin A–rich foods at low levels of tree cover in the lowland forest-savanna ecoregions, whereas the difference between poor and non-poor is less pronounced in the Sahel-Sudan. These results highlight the importance of trees and forests in sustainable food system transformation, even in areas with sparse tree cover.
Rasmussen, L. V., Olesen, R. S., Powell, B., & Kilawe, C. J. (2024). Food environment change on wild food consumption in rural Tanzania. Food Security, 16, 1203–1221
Abstract
In this longitudinal study we explore how changes in food environments have shaped the acquisition and consumption of wildfoods among people living near forests. Our study conceptually improves food environment frameworks by including evidenceon changes in wild food consumption. We used data collected in both the dry and rainy seasons in 2009 and 2021/2022 in fourvillages in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. Across data collections, we conducted qualitative interviews, focus groupsand repeated household surveys, including questions on dietary intake, food sources, agricultural practices, and use of wildresources. We found that the proportion of people who collected wild foods within the past seven days had declined from 90to 61% in the dry season and from 99 to 72% in the wet season. The main reasons were 1) decreased availability caused by,for example, loss of biodiversity, 2) lack of access due to government forest regulations, and 3) increased desirability towardsmarked-based foods. Our results show how changes in both availability, access and desirability of wild foods have shifteddietary choices from wild foods towards cultivated and purchased foods. Also, we see less widespread consumption of sentinelfood groups such as dark green leafy vegetables. Our results highlight the need for an additional dimension in existing foodenvironment frameworks: “Legal access to wild resources” that would cover access to wild foods. This dimension is importantas loss of legal access and declining consumption can have negative dietary implications, since the most commonly consumedwild foods, such as leafy vegetables, are nutritionally important.
Rasmussen, L. V., Huang, K., Brandt, M., Hiernaux, P., Tucker, C. J., Reiner, F., Li, S., Kariryaa, A., Mugabowindekwe, M., den Braber, B., Small, J., Sino, S., & Fensholt, R. (2024). Mapping every adult baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) across the Sahel and relationships to rural livelihoods. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 8, 1632–1640.
Abstract
The baobab tree (Adansonia digitata L.) is an integral part of rural livelihoods throughout the African continent. However, the combined effects of climate change and increasing global demand for baobab products are currently exerting pressure on the sustainable utilization of these resources. Here we use sub-metre-resolution satellite imagery to identify the presence of nearly 2.8 million (underestimation bias 27.1%) baobab trees in the Sahel, a dryland region of 2.4 million km2. This achievement is considered an essential step towards an improved management and monitoring system of valuable woody species. Using Senegal as a case country, we find that 94% of rural buildings have at least one baobab tree in their immediate surroundings and that the abundance of baobabs is associated with a higher likelihood of people consuming a highly nutritious food group: dark green leafy vegetables. The generated database showcases the feasibility of mapping the location of single tree species at a sub-continental scale, providing vital information in times when deforestation and climate change cause the extinction of numerous tree species.
Rasmussen, L. V., & Caspersen, A. M. (2024). Moringa oleifera as a potential avenue to improve food security in rural Malawi. Trees, Forests and People, 18, 100667.
Abstract
M. oleifera (Moringa) is a multipurpose tree with the potential to contribute nutrients to people's diets as well as pharmacological benefits. It is widely distributed in low- and middle-income countries, yet it remains underutilized. Here, we examine the potential of M. oleifera to improve rural people's food security and dietary diversity. We focus on Malawi, where 35 % of children under the age of five suffer from stunting and 51 % of the population is classified as severely food insecure. We draw on a survey with 60 women in rural Malawi detailing food security, dietary diversity, and consumption of different M. oleifera parts and products. Using Poisson regressions, we found that M. oleifera tree ownership is associated with a 28 % decrease in food insecurity levels. Moreover, people with awareness of the benefits of M. oleifera consumption were more likely to consume leaf powder compared to people without the same awareness. Specifically, each additional benefit mentioned by women increased the odds of powder consumption by a factor of 4.6. As such, our findings highlight 1) the underutilized potential of M. oleifera in local people's food security, and 2) how awareness can be key to increased consumption. Policies should be designed to raise awareness and educate rural communities about the benefits of M. oleifera, targeting communities, schools, and healthcare facilities. Finally, M. oleifera products could provide rural women with opportunities to increase household income, contingent on establishing contracts with exporters and collectors.
Rasmussen, L. V., Olesen, R. S., Reiner, F., den Braber, B., Hall, C., Kilawe, C. J., Kinabo, J., Msuya, J., & (2024). The importance of different forest management systems for people’s dietary quality in Tanzania. Landscape Ecology, 39(9), 176.
Abstract
A large body of literature has shown that forests provide nutritious foods in many low- and middle-income countries. Yet, there is limited evidence on the contributions from different types of forest and tree systems.
Here, we focus on individual trees and smaller forest patches outside established forest reserves as well as different forest management systems. We do so by combining novel high-resolution data on tree cover with 24-h dietary recall surveys from 465 women in Tanzania.
We show that people with more unclassified tree cover (i.e., individual trees and small forest patches) in their nearby surroundings have more adequate protein, iron, zinc, and vitamin A intakes. We also find that having a nearby forest under Participatory Forest Management (PFM) system is associated with higher adequacy levels of energy, iron, zinc and vitamin A. By contrast, tree cover within other types of forest (e.g., Government Forest Reserves and Government Forest Plantations) is not positively associated with people’s dietary quality.
Our key finding is that having individual trees, smaller forest patches and/or forest under PFM in close proximity is more beneficial for people’s diets than other types of established forests. Our results highlight the nutritional importance of trees outside established forests and question the often-assumed benefits of forests if these are made inaccessible by social barriers (e.g., legislation). Finally, our results emphasize the need to distinguish between different forest management systems when studying forest-diet linkages.
Rasmussen, L. V., Alpuche Álvarez, Y. A., Jepsen, M. R., Müller, D., & Sun, Z. (2024). Unraveling the complexity of land use change and path dependency in agri-environmental schemes for small farmers: A serious game approach. Land Use Policy, 139, 107067.
Abstract
This study investigates how Maya farmers in Mexico respond to agri-environmental subsidies aimed at promoting sustainable land use decisions. We do so through a serious games approach, using a tailor-designed board game to identify the land use behaviors of Maya farmers. The game simulated three different subsidy programs promoting mechanized agriculture, forest conservation, and agroforestry. We find that farmers tend to clear forested areas in response to agroforestry subsidies. Also, we observe that land use decisions are path-dependent, with farmers adhering to traditional and mechanized agriculture and hesitant to engage in conservation and agroforestry. These findings highlight the potential of serious games as a tool to improve understandings of how farmers make land use decisions and the resulting land use change patterns. Specifically, our findings show that serious games are well suited to understand how path dependency in decision-making can influence the effect of subsidies – and whether subsidies thereby achieve the intended goals, such as reduced deforestation.
Zavaleta Cheek, J., Brooks, J. S., Wang, S. W., Namgyel, U., Nakamura Lam, K., Eklund, J., Katel, O., & Miller, D. C. (2024). Towards understanding capacity development as a system: Perceptions from multiple conservation stakeholder groups in Bhutan. Environmental Conservation, 51(4), 280–289.
Abstract
Capacity development is crucial for enduring conservation success. Recent scholarship has called for a systems perspective based on input from local stakeholders to better understand and develop conservation capacity. However, few studies have adopted such an approach to explore interactions among capacities or how capacity development needs and priorities evolve. We address this gap through a case study from Bhutan, centred on perceptions from 52 local conservation practitioners, planners, funders and community members. We use mixed methods to identify which capacities have been important for conservation success, which capacities are needed for future success, which capacities are foundational and how capacities interact. We find that capacity needs have shifted from individual-level knowledge and skills to community- and societal-level capacities in response to changing political and economic dynamics. Participants identified political support and leadership, reliable and sufficient funding, strengthening the research base, and increasing community awareness and engagement as critical future needs. Investing in these capacities holds the promise of further augmenting capacity development, thus increasing the value of limited resources. Our results demonstrate that capacity development should be viewed as a dynamic process and supported by strategic investment even in countries with track records of conservation success.
2023
Agrawal, A., Erbaugh, J., & Pradhan, N. (2023). The Commons. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 48(1), 531-558.
Abstract
Commons—resources used or governed by groups of heterogeneous users through agreed-upon institutional arrangements—are the subject of one of the more successful research programs in the social-environmental sciences. This review assesses research on the commons to accomplish three tasks. First, it surveys the theoretical, substantive, and methods-focused achievements of the field, illustrating how commons research has also influenced natural resource policy making. Second, it examines the changing trajectories of commons research, emphasizing the growing interest of commons researchers in new methods and the application of insights to new social contexts. Third, the review suggests that research on the commons can find continuing relevance by addressing contemporary and future social-environmental challenges. It highlights three directions in particular: (a) strengthening the focus on issues of power and equity, (b) applying insights about effective commons governance to collaborative attempts to craft commons in new societal spaces, and (c) advancing an emerging emphasis on causal analysis and taking advantage of novel streams of large-scale public datasets.
Amadu, F. O. (2023). Peer effects in agricultural extension: Evidence from community knowledge workers in rural Uganda. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 7(1), 100484.
Abstract
Peer effects are increasingly important in agricultural development through social learning and technology adoption among smallholder farmers in rural communities. In sub-Saharan Africa, peer effects can enhance rural development by improving the performance of rural extension workers, and thereby facilitate the diffusion of innovations among smallholder farmers. Yet, analyses of peer effects in the performance of extension agents remain limited. We respond to this knowledge gap by estimating peer effects in the performance of community knowledge workers (CKWs) who utilize smartphones to provide extension services in rural Uganda. We apply spatial econometric analysis to administrative data on the monthly performance of 650 CKWs across 13 Ugandan districts in 2011 (performance being measured by the amount of information provided in response to farmers’ requests). We found positive and statistically significant effects of the performance of the peers of CKWs on their respective performance by 49%. The result suggests that policy makers and development practitioners can utilize peer effects among rural extension agents like CKWs to improve the delivery of agricultural extension and advisory services and thereby, enhance agricultural growth and rural development in Uganda and similar contexts elsewhere.
Amadu, F. O., & Miller, D. C. (2024). The impact of forest product collection and processing on household income in rural Liberia. Forest Policy and Economics, 158, 103098.
Abstract
Forests and trees can provide a means to alleviate poverty while simultaneously addressing climate change and other sustainability goals. However, empirical evidence on the income and livelihoods effects of collecting and processing forest products (including timber and non-timber forest products), remains limited. Evidence is especially sparse across multiple spatial scales within countries and in certain regions, such as West Africa. We respond to this knowledge gap by estimating the impacts of forest product collection and processing on smallholder household income and the spatial variability of impacts across counties and regional clusters in Liberia, the most forested country in West Africa. We applied endogenous treatment effect and multilevel mixed effects regression to survey data from a sample of 2983 forest proximate households across Liberia in 2019. Results show that the collection and processing of forest products increased household income by 139% with statistically significant variation across counties by 26%. Pathway analyses show that participation in such enterprises affected household income through both timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs), with NTFPs having higher impacts at 167% compared to timber at 115%. This study demonstrates that involvement in the forest sector can significantly enhance rural incomes and suggests that forests may form a viable pathway to realize poverty alleviation and sustainability goals in Liberia, elsewhere in West Africa, and beyond.
Bandiaky-Badji et al. (2023) Indigenous stewardship for habitat protection
Bandiaky-Badji, S., Lovera, S., Márquez, G.Y.H., Araos Leiva, F.J., Robinson, C.J., Smith, M.A., Currey, K., Ross, H., Agrawal, A., and White, A. 2023. "Indigenous Stewardship for Habitat Protection." One Earth 6 (2) 68-72
Abstract
In the context of ecosystem stewardship, rights and autonomy for Indigenous and local communities, coupled with effective governance, improves equity, wellbeing, biodiversity, and climate mitigation and adaptation outcomes. This Voices asks: what is needed to effectively consolidate, strengthen, and scale up local examples of stewardship and conservation?
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Rayna Benzeev, Sam Zhang, Marcelo Artur Rauber, Eric A Vance, Peter Newton, Formalizing tenure of Indigenous lands improved forest outcomes in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, PNAS Nexus, Volume 2, Issue 1, January 2023.
Abstract
Across the globe, the legal land rights and tenure of many Indigenous peoples are yet to be recognized. A growing body of research demonstrates that tenure of Indigenous lands improves livelihoods and protects forests in addition to inherently recognizing human rights. However, the effect of tenure on environmental outcomes has scarcely been tested in regions with high development pressure, such as those with persisting forest–agriculture conflicts. In this paper, we conduct an event study and a difference-in-differences analysis to estimate the average treatment effect of land tenure on forest cover change for 129 Indigenous lands in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil from 1985 to 2019. We found that forest outcomes in Indigenous lands improved following tenure compared to pretenure and that forest outcomes improved in tenured compared to nontenured lands. We also found that formalized tenure, rather than incomplete tenure, was necessary to improve forest outcomes. Our study is the first rigorous analysis of the effect of tenure on Indigenous lands in the globally important Atlantic Forest biome and contributes to a growing body of literature on the role of rights-based approaches to conservation. The evidence presented in this study may support efforts to secure the legal rights and autonomy of Indigenous peoples.
Benzeev, R., Wiens, A., Piotto, D., & Newton, P. (2023). Property size and forest cover were key determinants of forest restoration in Southern Bahia in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Land use Policy, 134, 106879.
Abstract
Forest restoration has gained traction as a solution to mitigate climate change, contribute to biodiversity conservation, and support forest livelihoods. Yet there is limited evidence on the spatial locations where restoration is most likely to occur. In landscapes that primarily contain private properties, assessing the likelihood of restoration can be informed by understanding the enabling and limiting factors that have influenced property-level restoration in the past. In this paper, we tested the relationships between restoration, property size, and forest cover, for 8451 properties between 1985 and 2019 in Southern Bahia, Atlantic Forest, Brazil. We found that spatial property-level variables were strongly associated with restoration. First, we found that property size was positively correlated with the amount of restoration per property. Medium-sized properties (between 40 and 127 ha) accounted for the most restoration in aggregate. Second, we found that properties with less forest cover were associated with higher amounts of restoration. In addition, for properties larger than 20 ha, those with intermediate amounts of forest cover had high amounts of restoration. Third, we found that restoration was a spatial process that occurred in hotspots rather than randomly across the study landscape, indicating that restoration often occurred near to other restored properties. Understanding these relationships may assist restoration planners in making more informed estimates of the conditions that might enable future restoration. Given that restoration is a complex process that may require different approaches in different socio-environmental contexts, decision-makers may consider identifying and prioritizing properties of different sizes and with different amounts of forest cover depending on their specific priorities, landscape-level conditions, and restoration context. Our spatial analysis techniques assist in improving broader understanding of possible ways in which land use policy could prioritize for restoration at the property level and could later be applied to other socio-environmental tropical forest systems.
Blesh, J., Mehrabi, Z., Wittman, H., Kerr, R. B., James, D., Madsen, S., Smith, O. M., Snapp, S., Stratton, A. E., Bakarr, M., Bicksler, A. J., Galt, R., Garibaldi, L. A., Gemmill-Herren, B., Grass, I., Isaac, M. E., John, I., Jones, S. K., Kennedy, C. M., . . . Kremen, C. (2023). Against the odds: Network and institutional pathways enabling agricultural diversification. One Earth, 6(5), 479-491.
Abstract
Farming systems that support locally diverse agricultural production and high levels of biodiversity are in rapid decline, despite evidence of their benefits for climate, environmental health, and food security. Yet, agricultural policies, financial incentives, and market concentration increasingly constrain the viability of diversified farming systems. Here, we present a conceptual framework to identify novel processes that promote the emergence and sustainability of diversified farming systems, using three real-world examples where farming communities have found pathways to diversification despite major structural constraints. By applying our framework to analyze these bright spots in the United States, Brazil, and Malawi, we identify two distinct pathways—network and institutional—to diversification. These pathways emerge through alignment of factors related to social and ecological structure (policies, institutions, and environmental conditions) and agency (values, collective action, and management decisions). We find that, when network and institutional pathways operate in tandem, the potential to scale up diversification across farms and landscapes increases substantially.
Choksi et al. (2023) Combining socioeconomic and biophysical data to identify people-centric restoration opportunities
Pooja Choksi, Arun Agrawal, Ivan Bialy, Rohini Chaturvedi, Kyle Frankel Davis, Shalini Dhyani, Forrest Fleischman, Jonas Lechner, Harini Nagendra, Veena Srininvasan and Ruth DeFries. "Combining socioeconomic and biophysical data to identify people-centric restoration opportunities." Biodiversity (2023) 2:7
Abstract
Designing restoration projects requires integrating socio-economic and cultural needs of local stakeholders for enduring and just outcomes. Using India as a case study, we demonstrate a people-centric approach to help policymakers translate global restoration prioritization studies for application to a country-specific context and to identify different socio-environmental conditions restoration programs could consider when siting projects. Focusing, in particular, on poverty quantified by living standards and land tenure, we find that of the 579 districts considered here, 116 of the poorest districts have high biophysical restoration potential (upper 50th percentile of both factors). In most districts, the predominant land tenure is private, indicating an opportunity to focus on agri-pastoral restoration over carbon and forest-based restoration projects.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Cumming, G. S., Davies, Z. G., Fischer, J., & Hajjar, R. (2023). Toward a pluralistic conservation science. Conservation Letters, 16(3), e12952.
Abstract
This editorial reflects on the history of the conservation movement, the strong continuing influence of its colonial past, and the counter-emergence of a more pluralistic and respectful worldview. Conservation Letters seeks to support and foster an ethical and inclusive discipline of conservation that discards elements of its colonial and racist history. This will involve broadening the disciplinary scope of “conservation” and paying greater attention to traditional ecological knowledge and nonwestern conservation approaches. We also see a particular need for theoretical advances that guide conservation practice by informing and connecting different kinds of expertise to understand social-ecological interactions and their implications for both people and ecosystems. Conservation can and should play a vital role in securing the joint future of ecosystems and people, but it will only achieve its full potential if it retains its social license and stays relevant to emerging concerns and values.
Kyle Frankel Davis et al. 2023 Environ. Res. Lett. 18 024014
Abstract
Agricultural large-scale land acquisitions have been linked with enhanced deforestation and land use change. Yet the extent to which transnational agricultural large-scale land acquisitions (TALSLAs) contribute to—or merely correlate with—deforestation, and the expected biodiversity impacts of the intended land use changes across ecosystems, remains unclear. We examine 178 georeferenced TALSLA locations in 40 countries to address this gap. While forest cover within TALSLAs decreased by 17% between 2000 and 2018 and became more fragmented, the spatio-temporal patterns of deforestation varied substantially across regions. While deforestation rates within initially forested TALSLAs were 1.5 (Asia) to 2 times (Africa) higher than immediately surrounding areas, we detected no such difference in Europe and Latin America. Our findings suggest that, whereas TALSLAs may have accelerated forest loss in Asia, a different mechanism might emerge in Africa where TALSLAs target areas already experiencing elevated deforestation. Regarding biodiversity (here focused on vertebrate species), we find that nearly all (91%) studied deals will likely experience substantial losses in relative species richness (−14.1% on average within each deal)—with mixed outcomes for relative abundance—due to the intended land use transitions. We also find that 39% of TALSLAs fall at least partially within biodiversity hotspots, placing these areas at heightened risk of biodiversity loss. Taken together, these findings suggest distinct regional differences in the nature of the association between TALSLAs and forest loss and provide new evidence of TALSLAs as an emerging threat to biodiversity in the Global South.
Fischer, H.W., Chhatre, A., Duddu, A., Pradhan, N. and Agrawal, A., 2023. Community forest governance and synergies among carbon, biodiversity and livelihoods. Nature Climate Change, pp.1-8.
Abstract
Forest landscape restoration has emerged as a key strategy to sequester atmospheric carbon and conserve biodiversity while providing livelihood co-benefits for indigenous peoples and local communities. Using a dataset of 314 forest commons in human-dominated landscapes in 15 tropical countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, we examine the relationships among carbon sequestered in above-ground woody biomass, tree species richness and forest livelihoods. We find five distinct clusters of forest commons, with co-benefits and trade-offs on multiple dimensions. The presence of a formal community management association and local participation in rule-making are consistent predictors of multiple positive outcomes. These findings, drawn from a range of contexts globally, suggest that empowered local forest governance may support multiple objectives of forest restoration. Our analysis advances understanding of institutional aspects of restoration while underscoring the importance of analysing the interconnections among multiple forest benefits to inform effective interventions for multifunctional tropical forests.
Govindarajulu, D., Pritchard, R., Chhatre, A., Foster, T., & Oldekop, J. A. (2023). Rights based approaches to forest landscape restoration; learning from the Indian forest policy experience. Forest Policy and Economics, 157, 103073.
Abstract
Secure rights and tenure are considered essential components for socially just forest landscape restoration (FLR). Through a content analysis of India's forest policies, we identify enabling factors and challenges for rights based FLR. We discuss the practical implications of these enabling factors and barriers for FLR in India using evidence from the literature. We find that policies like the Forest Rights Act (FRA) and the Panchayat Extension of Scheduled Areas (PESA) Act support rights based FLR by providing communities with secure forest management rights and ownership of forest products. However, other policies, such as the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, can act antagonistically and weaken community rights in FLR. From our analysis, we draw three key lessons for rights based FLR in India and globally. First, there is a need to identify and resolve conflicts among forest policies that undermine rights and affect community participation in FLR. Second, policies must go beyond providing a potential for claiming rights and make claiming rights actionable in practice. Third, there is a need for a greater focus on promoting FLR mechanisms that allow communities to participate in FLR decision-making with their full set of recognised rights, including in the design of FLR activities that align with community preferences and needs.
Jung, S., & Hajjar, R. (2023). The livelihood impacts of transnational aid for climate change mitigation: Evidence from Ghana. Forest Policy and Economics, 155, 103053.
Abstract
While multilateral agencies have spent hundreds of millions of dollars in the forestry sector to curb deforestation, mitigate climate change, and improve local livelihoods, there is a lack of rigorous empirical analyses demonstrating past investments' effectiveness in improving livelihoods. We investigate such programs' effectiveness in changing livelihoods by estimating the Forest Investment Program (FIP)’s short-term impacts in Ghana. We do not find significant changes in income, expenditure, and food security of households in FIP communities compared with non-FIP communities post-FIP. However, households in FIP communities with increased monitoring and enforcement activities decreased the harvest of forest products, which caused forest-dependent households to allocate their labor toward own farm production. These results suggest mitigation programs relying on increased monitoring and enforcement should also support practical ways to offset negative livelihood impacts from the decreased harvest of forest products.
Liao, C., Liu, J. & Agrawal, A. Sustainability governance for agrarian transformation under climate change. Sustain Sci 19, 361–372 (2024).
Abstract
Scholarship at the intersection of agrarian studies and climate change has made substantial contributions toward a deeper understanding of how climate and environmental changes shape and are shaped by the rural world. We call for placing sustainability at the core of future analyses of ongoing agrarian transitions to strengthen more systematic investigations of their relationship with broader social and climate changes. The new focus on sustainability—both to investigate causes and assess outcomes—will fundamentally influence how agrarian studies scholarship seeks to understand the relationship of climate change with agrarian transformations. Through an assessment of three examples of agrarian transitions, driven by state, non-government organizations, and capital-intensive development projects, we highlight the “wicked” sustainability challenges threatening the wellbeing of rural populations and of ecosystems that sustain rural livelihoods. We conclude that incorporating a sustainability governance framework into critical agrarian studies facilitates understanding and action toward sustainable transformations in the rural world.
Liao, C., & Agrawal, A. (2024). Towards a science of ‘land grabbing’. Land use Policy, 137, 107002.
Abstract
In the past two decades, large-scale land transactions (LSLTs), commonly known as land grabs or large-scale land acquisitions, have been pursued by agricultural investors and host-country governments in Lower- and Middle-Income Countries (LMIC) to boost crop yield. Existing knowledge on LSLTs is highly diverse, generated by scholars taking a wide range of perspectives and frameworks. However, the global patterns of LSLT-related research and their potential shortcomings remain under-investigated. In this paper, we analyze 370 peer-reviewed papers on LSLTs to advance this field of knowledge towards a science of ‘land grabbing’. Our findings reveal that 1) research on LSLTs displays geographical imbalances; 2) global statistics do not fully capture the complexity of LSLTs on the ground; 3) different disciplinary interests and theoretical traditions result in different use of terms in referring to LSLTs and divergent impressions of their social consequences; and 4) the environmental consequences of LSLTs are under-studied relatively. We suggest that a better understanding of LSLTs could result from greater engagement with each discipline’s strength and epistemic frameworks.
López-Vargas, P., Gonzales Tovar, J., & Hajjar, R. (2023). Interactions between formal and informal institutions governing community and small-scale timber enterprises: The case of the Ampiyacu river basin in the Peruvian Amazon. Forest Policy and Economics, 157, 103070.
Abstract
Community-based and small-scale forestry enterprises (CSFEs) are heavily promoted as organizations for poverty reduction and deforestation. CSFEs are required to comply with formal laws, policies, and official programs, yet they also operate in informal spaces, with communities following traditional ways of managing their resources. Based on a case study of the Ampiyacu basin in the Peruvian Amazon, we analyzed how the interaction between formal and informal timber management systems has evolved over time, and how this interaction has affected tenure, forest management, forest monitoring and timber commercialization. Using qualitative research methods, including interviews with key informants and community members, our findings show that formal and traditional systems interact in diverse, complex and even contradictory ways. Informal community rules regulate timber use as much or more than the state, and can be more effective because they are more diverse, flexible and specific. Ultimately, this study seeks to contribute to a reflective debate on the recognition of local and Indigenous institutions, highlighting the importance of strengthening Indigenous peoples' autonomy.
Miller et al. (2023) Conservation Social Science: Understanding People, Conserving Biodiversity
Miller, D.C., Scales, I.R. & Mascia, M.A. 2023. "Conservation Social Science: Understanding People, Conserving Biodiversity." Wiley
DESCRIPTION
Earth’s biodiversity is in crisis. Forests are shrinking, fisheries are collapsing, and species are disappearing around the globe. Drawing upon the biological sciences, the conservation community has responded to this crisis by investing billions of dollars in programs designed to protect endangered species and ecosystems. While conservation efforts sometimes fail because of biological ignorance, conservationists more often get the biology “right,” but still fail to preserve target species and ecosystems.
This book is a rigorous, clearly articulated, and comprehensive introduction to the role of social scientific theory and knowledge in conservation policy and practice. The authors are leading scholars at the nexus of social science and biodiversity conservation, and seek to present a book that will transform the prevailing conservation paradigm by discussing how social scientific theory and knowledge can inform and strengthen conservation policy and practice.
Morrison, T.H., Adger, W.N., Agrawal, A. et al. Radical interventions for climate-impacted systems. Nat. Clim. Chang. 12, 1100–1106 (2022).
Abstract
Standard solutions to the threat of >1.5 °C global average warming are not ambitious enough to prevent large-scale irreversible loss. Meaningful climate action requires interventions that are preventative, effective and systemic—interventions that are radical rather than conventional. New forms of radical intervention are already emerging, but they risk being waylaid by rhetorical or misleading claims. Here, to encourage a more informed debate, we present a typology of radical intervention based on recent studies of resilience, transition and transformation. The typology, which is intended to be provocative, questions the extent that different interventions can disrupt the status quo to address the root drivers of climate change.
Muir, C., A. C. Smith, and A. Agrawal. 2023. Climate change, degradation, and land acquisitions: evaluating inequalities among competing interests for suitable cropland in Ethiopia. Ecology and Society 28(1):46.
Abstract
Land is the central resource for agriculture. In many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where a large portion of the population relies on agriculture for subsistence and household incomes, future declines in the productive capacity of the land owing to environmental change pose a major threat both to farming and the well-being of smallholders. Smallholders’ access to land is concurrently at risk due to large-scale land acquisitions (LSLA), promoted by governments across SSA as a means to secure capital investments for agricultural growth and economic development. These issues are especially widespread in Ethiopia, which has faced both extensive land degradation and been a primary target country for LSLA investments. This study analyzes the relative quality of land under the control of smallholders vs. large investors in western Ethiopia, with particular attention to how future suitability of land is likely to change for growing three major smallholder crops: Maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Spatial analyses are applied to compare the suitability in areas allocated to LSLAs and the remaining land available to smallholders in the country’s western farming systems. Crop-specific suitability datasets are used to approximate the change in land quality between baseline conditions and scenarios of future climate change to assess the effects of climate-induced land degradation. Results indicate large areas of decreasing suitability by the late 21st century for all crops across Ethiopia. Furthermore, this study shows that LSLA occupy land with more stable suitability, suggesting more secure agricultural land is being offered to investors.
Nurrochmat NA., Purnomo H., Muhdin, Erbaugh JT. 2023. Developing sustainable models of agroforest-landscape in Bogor, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 4324-4333.
Abstract
Deforestation continues in Indonesia even though many regulations and precautions have been taken. It most likely happened due to the less economic contribution from the forestry sector, which caused the conversion from forest lands to more profitable land uses. The forest area covers 125 million hectares (66%) of 190 million hectares of country land but contributes only about 0.60% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). An agroforestry scheme is promoted to increase the economic value of the forest to increase both the community welfare and the environmental quality. This study indicates that the best agroforestry commodities for social scenarios are durian, ornamental plants, and laying hens, with the highest potential profit of IDR.143,857,559 (USD.9,652)/hectare/month and 9.19 tons/hectare carbon stock. While for the economic scenario is jackfruit, ornamental plants, and laying hens with a potential profit of IDR.146,908,379 (USD.9,789)/hectare/month and 18.66 tons/hectare carbon stock. In comparison, the ecology scenario promotes nutmeg and ornamental plants with a potential profit of IDR 36,814,280 (USD.2,470)/hectare/month, with the highest of 56.12 tons/hectare carbon stock. This study recommends the appropriate land use models for the government to address the conflict of interest between agriculture and forestry in contributing to Indonesia's FoLU (Forestry and other Land Uses) Net Sink in 2030.
Obura D, Agrawal A, DeClerck F, Donaldson J, Dziba L, Emery MR, et al. (2023) Prioritizing sustainable use in the Kunming-Montreal global biodiversity framework. PLOS Sustain Transform 2(1): e0000041.
Introduction and background
In late 2021, a range of experts from around the world came together through GEOBON and the bioDiscovery program of Future Earth to provide expert input to the Kunming-Montreal global biodiversity framework (GBF)—the new strategic framework under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) that will guide interventions to conserve biodiversity and ecosystem services for the next 3 decades.
This opinion piece, a companion to others addressing the ecosystem, restoration, climate, and production system objectives of the GBF (see https://geobon.org/science-briefs/), discusses the science behind the sustainable use (SU) targets (Fig 1). It also examines the state of play in international negotiations of the GBF and lays out key priorities for implementation of the framework with respect to SU.
Perosa, B., Newton, P., & da Silva, R. F. B. (2023). A monitoring, reporting and verification system for low carbon agriculture: A case study from Brazil. Environmental Science & Policy, 140, 286-296.
Abstract
Low carbon agricultural techniques, which aim to reduce agricultural emissions without compromising productivity, are being widely adopted as one strategy to promote more sustainable food systems. Evaluating the impact of such practices requires an effective monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) system. To our knowledge, no MRV system has been designed or implemented for monitoring and measuring the impacts of the adoption of low carbon agricultural practices. The goal of this paper is to explore the opportunities and challenges of developing a large scale MRV system for low carbon agriculture in Brazil - a major global food producer. The analysis presented in this paper is based on primary data, collected through interviews and conversations with experts, and secondary data from a literature review as well as from public and private databases. Hence, we discuss the three phases of monitoring, reporting and verification. In each case, we analyze the informational needs of an MRV system, evaluate the strengths and limitations of available tools to collect and process these data, and present a vision of how these constituent parts could form a comprehensive MRV system for Brazil. Our analysis reveals technical and governance challenges. On the technical side, challenges include the need to develop emissions factors to calculate mitigation across a range of biomes and low carbon agricultural techniques, and the high costs of gathering and verifying information on farm level. On the governance side, there is a need to generate economic incentives for farmers to share private, farm-level data with a public MRV system. The MRV system could help producers to demonstrate adoption and mitigation, giving them improved access to low-interest credit or certification programs. We conclude that the implementation of a large scale MRV system for low carbon agriculture demands an integrative approach based on a hybrid public-private governance system that prioritizes cost-effectiveness and facilitates smooth information transfer.
Rasmussen, L.V., den Braber, B., Hall, C.M. et al. Forest regrowth improves people’s dietary quality in Nigeria. npj Sustain. Agric. 1, 3 (2023).
Abstract
Two billion people currently suffer from micronutrient deficiencies. Existing literature shows that forests can improve people’s dietary quality—yet forests are often overlooked in food security policies, which focus primarily on the production of staple crops. The Bonn Challenge has set a goal of restoring 350 million ha of forest by 2030, but it remains unclear whether restored forests will exhibit the species diversity needed to improve diets in the same way as existing forests. Here, we report how forest regrowth in Nigeria has affected people’s dietary quality. We combine a new map on forest regrowth with food consumption panel data from over 1100 households—and use a combination of regression and weighting analyses to generate quasi-experimental quantitative estimates of the impacts of forest regrowth on people’s food intake. We find that people living in areas where forest regrowth has occurred have a higher intake of fruits and vegetables and thus higher dietary diversity.
Rochmayanto, Y., Nurrochmat, D. R., Nugroho, B., Darusman, D., Satria, A., Casse, T., Erbaugh, J. T., & Wicaksono, D. (2023). Devolution of forest management to local communities and its impacts on livelihoods and deforestation in Berau, Indonesia. Heliyon, 9(5), e16115.
Abstract
Law 11/2020 on job creation has changed a partial forest business license to a multi-purpose forest business and devolved some authorities in forest management to local communities. Studies on common-pool resources demonstrate that devolution of common property is one of the most important factors for sustainability. This study aims to analyze the factors that influence reducing deforestation and focuses on two different village forest organizations in East Kalimantan: first, village forests under the management of the Forest Management Unit of Berau Barat -forests managed by a provincial government (Long Duhung and Merapun village forests), and second, devolution of village forest managed by a local village institution (Merabu village forest). Recent evidence from these study sites indicates that the devolution of forest management associated with village forests has not consistently reduced forest cover loss. There was a complex interaction between the passage of robustness of the institutional settings and economic preferences linked to deforestation. The forest governance systems, including rules that determine property rights, can promote forest conservation when people's interests are served by forest land use. Conversely, economic preferences also control deforestation. This study confirms that the institutional robustness of forest governance systems and actors' economic preferences play an important role in controlling deforestation. This study suggests the devolution of rights for forest management and incentivizing economic alternatives for using forest resources to reduce deforestation.
Shyamsundar, P., Marques, P., Smith, E., Erbaugh, J., Ero, M., Hinchley, D., James, R., Leisher, C., Nakandakari, A., Pezoa, L., Preece, L., & Prezotti, G. (2023). Nature and equity. Conservation Letters, 16(4), e12956.
Abstract
Complex challenges posed by climate change, biodiversity loss, and global inequality may require intertwined solutions forged through the frame of “Nature and equity.” This timely frame responds to growing calls for conservation to deliver fair outcomes to people and offers strategic value for meeting environmental goals. To clarify how and why approaches that support nature and equity may emerge, this commentary draws on conservation efforts in five different social and political settings. Building on practitioner experiences in Australia, Chile, Kenya, Peru, and Solomon Islands, it identifies a set of equity instruments that recognize local environmental knowledge, rights, and practices, strengthen marginalized voices, and promote fair outcomes, and the enabling conditions that facilitate their use. The article concludes by discussing critical considerations for enhancing nature and equity.
Sullivan, J. A., Samii, C., Brown, D. G., Moyo, F., & Agrawal, A. (2023). Large-scale land acquisitions exacerbate local farmland inequalities in Tanzania. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(32), e2207398120.
Abstract
Land inequality stalls economic development, entrenches poverty, and is associated with environmental degradation. Yet, rigorous assessments of land-use interventions attend to inequality only rarely. A land inequality lens is especially important to understand how recent large-scale land acquisitions (LSLAs) affect smallholder and indigenous communities across as much as 100 million hectares around the world. This paper studies inequalities in land assets, specifically landholdings and farm size, to derive insights into the distributional outcomes of LSLAs. Using a household survey covering four pairs of land acquisition and control sites in Tanzania, we use a quasi-experimental design to characterize changes in land inequality and subsequent impacts on well-being. We find convincing evidence that LSLAs in Tanzania lead to both reduced landholdings and greater farmland inequality among smallholders. Households in proximity to LSLAs are associated with 21.1% (P = 0.02) smaller landholdings while evidence, although insignificant, is suggestive that farm sizes are also declining. Aggregate estimates, however, hide that households in the bottom quartiles of farm size suffer the brunt of landlessness and land loss induced by LSLAs that combine to generate greater farmland inequality. Additional analyses find that land inequality is not offset by improvements in other livelihood dimensions, rather farm size decreases among households near LSLAs are associated with no income improvements, lower wealth, increased poverty, and higher food insecurity. The results demonstrate that without explicit consideration of distributional outcomes, land-use policies can systematically reinforce existing inequalities.
Tanure, T., Faria de Abreu Campos, R., dos Reis, J.C. et al. Farmers’ perceptions of climate change affect their adoption of sustainable agricultural technologies in the Brazilian Amazon and Atlantic Forest biomes. Climatic Change 177, 8 (2024).
Abstract
Farmers’ perceptions about climate change may help to explain the farming systems that they adopt and the effectiveness of their production practices in mitigating the negative impacts of the agricultural sector on the environment. This study analyzed the perceptions of 273 farmers participating in the Sustainable Rural Project—a large-scale climate change mitigation project in Brazil—that promoted the adoption of sustainable agricultural technologies in the Brazilian Amazon and Atlantic Forest biomes. Using a principal component analysis, we developed a Climate Change Perception Indicator (CCPI): an index to categorize farmers according to their perceptions about the impacts of climate change on agriculture. Our results indicate that farmers’ motivations to adopt sustainable agricultural practices were strongly driven by economic factors. We also found evidence to suggest that political agendas can influence farmers’ environmental perceptions. Moreover, older farmers with a higher level of education and more experience tended to demonstrate a stronger concern about climate change. However, the level of adoption of sustainable agricultural technologies was generally low, and a lack of technical knowledge and financial support may hinder widespread adoption of these practices. Thus, an approach that includes consideration of farmers’ perceptions about the impacts of climate change on their business may improve outcomes from the Sustainable Rural Project and other projects that aim to enhance the adoption of sustainable agriculture technologies.
Cheek, J.Z., Lambrecht, N.J., den Braber, B. et al. Wild foods contribute to women’s higher dietary diversity in India. Nat Food 4, 476–482 (2023).
Abstract
Wild foods, from forests and common lands, can contribute to food and nutrition security. Most previous studies have established correlations between wild food consumption and children’s dietary diversity in Africa, but other groups and geographic contexts remain understudied. Here a rigorous quasi-experimental method was combined with monthly interval data to assess the contribution of wild foods to women’s diets. We collected 24 h diet recall data monthly, from November 2016 to November 2017, from 570 households in East India. We found that wild foods contributed positively to diets, especially in June and July (when consumption of wild foods was highest). Women who consumed wild foods had higher average dietary diversity scores (13% and 9% higher in June and July, respectively) and were more likely to consume nutrient-dense, dark-green leafy vegetables than those who did not. Our results underscore the importance of policies that increase knowledge of wild foods and protect people’s rights to access forests and other common lands for improved nutrition.
Zavaleta Cheek et al. (2023) A guide to qualitative attribution methods for evaluation in conservation
Zavaleta Cheek, J., Eklund, J., Merten, N., Brooks, J. & Miller, D.C. 2023. "A Guide to Qualitative Attribution Methods for Evaluation in Conservation." Conservation Biology, 00, 00– 00
Abstract
Knowledge of what conservation interventions improve biodiversity outcomes, and in which circumstances, is imperative. Experimental and quasi-experimental methods are increasingly used to establish causal inference and build the evidence base on the effectiveness of interventions, but their ability to provide insight into how and under what conditions an intervention should be implemented to improve biodiversity outcomes faces limitations. A suite of attribution methods that leverage qualitative methods for causal inference is available but underutilized in conversation impact evaluation. This article provides a guide to five such qualitative attribution methods: contribution analysis, process tracing, realist evaluation, qualitative comparative analysis, and most significant change. It defines and introduces each method and then illustrates how they could be applied through a case study of community conservancies in Namibia. This guide provides examples of how qualitative attribution methods can advance knowledge of what works, in which contexts, and why in biodiversity conservation.
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Zhang, Y., West, P., Thakholi, L., Suryawanshi, K., Supuma, M., Straub, D., Sithole, S. S., Sharma, R., Schleicher, J., Ruli, B., Rodríguez-Rodríguez, D., Rasmussen, M. B., Ramenzoni, V. C., Qin, S., Pugley, D. D., Palfrey, R., Oldekop, J., Nuesiri, E. O., Nguyen, V. H. T., . . . Agyei, F. K. (2023). Governance and Conservation Effectiveness in Protected Areas and Indigenous and Locally Managed Areas. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 48(1), 559-588.
Abstract
Increased conservation action to protect more habitat and species is fueling a vigorous debate about the relative effectiveness of different sorts of protected areas. Here we review the literature that compares the effectiveness of protected areas managed by states and areas managed by Indigenous peoples and/or local communities. We argue that these can be hard comparisons to make. Robust comparative case studies are rare, and the epistemic communities producing them are fractured by language, discipline, and geography. Furthermore the distinction between these different forms of protection on the ground can be blurred. We also have to be careful about the value of this sort of comparison as the consequences of different forms of conservation for people and nonhuman nature are messy and diverse. Measures of effectiveness, moreover, focus on specific dimensions of conservation performance, which can omit other important dimensions. With these caveats, we report on findings observed by multiple study groups focusing on different regions and issues whose reports have been compiled into this article. There is a tendency in the data for community-based or co-managed governance arrangements to produce beneficial outcomes for people and nature. These arrangements are often accompanied by struggles between rural groups and powerful states. Findings are highly context specific and global generalizations have limited value.
2022
Agrawal et al. (2022) From environmental governance to governance for sustainability
Agrawal, A., Brandhorst, S., Jain, M., Liao, C., Pradhan, N., Solomon, D. 2022. “From environmental governance to governance for sustainability.” One Earth 5(6): 615-621.
Abstract
Scholarship on environmental governance has provided invaluable contributions that usefully broadened the field of environmental policy from its narrow focus on central governments and state agencies. The inclusion of new agents and their interests, mechanisms of governance, and motivational foundations strengthened analyses of environmental challenges and outcomes. But the revolution of environmental governance remains incomplete. To address the complex, interrelated, non-linear socio-environmental sustainability challenges threatening societies and ecosystems, we call for a shift from environmental governance to governance for sustainability. Such a shift will fundamentally change how scholarship on socio-environmental challenges analyzes causes, processes, outcomes, and proposed solutions. It will attend closely to the interlinkages between social, economic, and environmental systems and their causes, processes, and patterns of outcomes. It will recast governance from analyses of rules and institutions to a field concerned with choices and actions aimed at transformational change toward sustainability.
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Amadu (2022) Farmer extension facilitators as a pathway for climate smart agriculture: evidence from southern Malawi
Amadu, F.O. (2022) Farmer extension facilitators as a pathway for climate smart agriculture: evidence from southern Malawi.” Climate Policy 1-16.
Climate smart agriculture (CSA) is increasingly vital for enhancing agricultural adaptation to extreme weather shocks and sequestering carbon in the face of climate change. However, CSA adoption remains low in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and other developing regions due to resource constraints and weak agricultural extension systems, among other factors. To reverse this trend and increase CSA adoption, the use of participatory extension services like farmer extension facilitators (FEFs) are increasingly viewed as a pathway to improving extension services in rural communities in SSA and elsewhere. Yet, rigorous analyses of the impacts of the FEF approach as a pathway for CSA adoption remain limited. Here we estimate the impacts of the FEF approach on CSA adoption in terms of resource intensity of CSA practices promoted by FEFs through a large CSA-related intervention in southern Malawi. We apply recursive bivariate probit regression to primary survey data from a sample of 808 households across five districts in the project area across southern Malawi in 2016, accounting for endogeneity and selection bias in farmer interaction with FEFs and the impact of the FEF approach on CSA adoption. Results show that interaction with FEFs had a positive and statistically-significant impact on CSA adoption; low, medium, and high resource intensity CSA categories increased by 42%, 87%, and 96%, respectively. The results suggest that the FEF approach can significantly enhance CSA adoption and thereby contribute to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals, including climate action in Malawi, similar contexts in SSA, and elsewhere.
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Bodin et al. (2022) A standard framework for assessing the costs and benefits of restoration: introducing The Economics of Ecosystem Restoration
Bodin, B., Garavaglia, V., Pingault, N., Ding, H., Wilson, S., Meybeck, A., Gitz, V., d’Andrea, S., Besacier, C. 2022. “A standard framework for assessing the costs and benefits of restoration: Introducing The Economics of Ecosystem Restoration.” Restoration Ecology 30(3):e13515.
Abstract
While the policy momentum behind ecosystem restoration has never been stronger, restoration finance remains insufficient. A crucial information gap to unlock finance is the lack of robust and consistent data on the costs and benefits of restoration. This is due in part to the wide variety of contexts, interventions, and objectives of restoration projects, and to the absence of well-defined standards and protocols for cost and benefit data collection. To fill this gap, we developed a standard framework to assess the costs and benefits of restoration projects and specific restoration interventions. The associated template for data collection, which was tested for usability during a piloting phase, is the first output of The Economics of Ecosystem Restoration (TEER), a multi-partner initiative under the aegis of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. It is the first attempt ever to improve the robustness and comparability of data on the economics of ecosystem restoration collected from the field at a global scale. Widespread adoption of this framework and associated template by a wide range of organizations implementing or financing restoration would allow for standardized data to be fed into a jointly owned database of restoration costs and benefits and serve as a basis for the further investigation of the economics of ecosystem restoration, including cost-benefits analysis. Better information on costs and benefits will help to inform accurate budgeting access to finance for restoration projects, and make them more likely to achieve their set goals and desired quantitative outcomes (e.g. area restored).
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Castle et al. (2022) Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map
Castle, S.E., D.C. Miller, Merten, N., P.J. Ordonez, and K. Baylis. 2022. “Evidence for the Impacts of Agroforestry on Ecosystem Services, and Human Well-Being in High-Income Countries: A Systematic Map.” Environmental Evidence 11 (1): 1-27.
Abstract
Agroforestry bridges the gap that often separates agriculture and forestry by building integrated systems to address both environmental and socio-economic objectives. Existing empirical research has suggested that agroforestry—the integration of trees with crops and/or livestock—can prevent environmental degradation, improve agricultural productivity, increase carbon sequestration, and support healthy soil and healthy ecosystems while providing stable incomes and other benefits to human welfare. However, the extent of the literature supporting or refuting these claims has not been well documented. This study addresses this research gap by collating and describing the evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries and presents the characteristics and gaps in the literature.
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Devkot et al. (2022) Biodiversity conservation funding in Bhutan: Thematic, temporal, and spatial trends over four decades
Devkot, D., Miller, D.C., Wang, S., Brooks, J. 2022. “Biodiversity conservation funding in Bhutan: Thematic, temporal, and spatial trends over four decades.” Conservation Science and Practice
Abstract
Access to sufficient financial resources is vital for effective biodiversity conservation. Although the importance of biodiversity conservation is widely recognized, lack of funding has been a significant impediment to achieving conservation goals. Yet, information on the allocation of conservation funding remains limited. This study addresses this gap by mapping conservation funding flows in Bhutan over the past four decades. We identified 249 projects totaling US$ 239.4 million allocated for biodiversity conservation in Bhutan from 1980 to 2019. Most of this funding derived from bilateral and multilateral aid agencies, with domestic trust funds and private foundations also contributing. Funding for projects with coupled conservation and development objectives and gender components was relatively high, particularly for funds allocated by multilateral and bilateral organizations. By contrast, domestic funding typically did not include development or gender components. Private foundations and domestic sources emphasized capacity development interventions. Despite relatively limited funding flows, the socio-political context in Bhutan, which favors environmentally friendly practices, may have been key to the country's widely recognized conservation success. Evidence on trends and patterns in conservation finance, as presented here for Bhutan, can advance conservation science and practice by shedding new light on historical and current conservation priorities and helping inform future allocation.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Eklund et al. (2022) In-country practitioner insights from Madagascar to inform more effective international conservation funding
Johanna Eklund, Zavaleta Cheek, J., Andriamaro, L., Bakoliarimisa,T.M., Galitsky, C., Rabearivololona, O., Rakotobe, D.J., Ralison, H.O., Randriamiharisoa, L.O., Rasamoelinarivo, J., Rasolofoson, D., Ratsirarson, J., Razafimpahanana, A., Temba, E.M., Pyhälä, A., Miller, D.C. "In-country Practitioner Insights from Madagascar to Inform More Effective International Conservation Funding." 2022. Madagascar Conservation and Development
Abstract
Access to sufficient financial resources is vital for effective biodiversity conservation. Although the importance of biodiversity conservation is widely recognized, lack of funding has been a significant impediment to achieving conservation goals. Yet, information on the allocation of conservation funding remains limited. This study addresses this gap by mapping conservation funding flows in Bhutan over the past four decades. We identified 249 projects totaling US$ 239.4 million allocated for biodiversity conservation in Bhutan from 1980 to 2019. Most of this funding derived from bilateral and multilateral aid agencies, with domestic trust funds and private foundations also contributing. Funding for projects with coupled conservation and development objectives and gender components was relatively high, particularly for funds allocated by multilateral and bilateral organizations. By contrast, domestic funding typically did not include development or gender components. Private foundations and domestic sources emphasized capacity development interventions. Despite relatively limited funding flows, the socio-political context in Bhutan, which favors environmentally friendly practices, may have been key to the country's widely recognized conservation success. Evidence on trends and patterns in conservation finance, as presented here for Bhutan, can advance conservation science and practice by shedding new light on historical and current conservation priorities and helping inform future allocation.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Guerrero et al. (2022) An investment strategy to address biodiversity loss from agricultural expansion
Guerrero, Pineda, C., Iacona, G.D., Mair, L., Hawkins, F., Siikamäki, J., Miller, D.C. 2022. “An investment strategy to address biodiversity loss from agricultural expansion.” Nature Sustainability 5(7): 610-618.
Abstract
The landmark 2019 Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Global Assessment cited land-use change as the primary driver of biodiversity loss. The 2016 peace agreement in Colombia has led to increasing agricultural expansion into biodiversity-rich forests. We have focused on the case of Colombia to demonstrate an approach to maximize the biodiversity benefits from limited conservation funding while ensuring that landowners maintain economic returns equivalent to agriculture. We applied a quantitative model that relates conservation investment to national biodiversity outcomes. Then we identified six regions with high potential return on investment by spatially modelling the risk of forest conversion and the expected impact of conservation actions. Our results suggest that agricultural expansion, left unchecked, would increase national biodiversity loss by 38–52% by 2033, and that doubling investment is necessary to counteract this loss. Our approach can be broadly used to target investment to weigh development and biodiversity goals. We demonstrate the approach in Colombia with its accelerated social and environmental changes and show how the efficiency of conservation options can be improved by considering opportunity cost of conservation to communities whose livelihoods depend on agriculture. This approach can be applied to other contexts to examine development and policy priorities to estimate financial needs for achieving biodiversity goals.
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Gutierrez et al. (2022) Forest and landscape restoration monitoring frameworks: how principled are they?
Gutierrez, V., Hallett, J.G., Ota, L., Sterling, E., Wilson, S.J., Bodin, B., Chazdon, R.L. 2022. “Forest and landscape restoration monitoring frameworks: how principled are they?” Restoration Ecology 30(4):13572
Abstract
Forest and landscape restoration (FLR) aims to simultaneously restore ecological functionality to deforested or degraded landscapes and ensure the provision of ecosystem services essential for human well-being. Interest in FLR has followed the ambitious commitments made to restore degraded forest by 2030 under the Bonn Challenge and the New York Declaration on Forests. To clarify and define FLR, the Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration articulated six principles that underlie this approach, but other sets of principles have also been developed. Our paper examines if and to what extent these principles and their interdependencies are captured in frameworks currently used to monitor FLR. We conducted a literature review to identify FLR monitoring frameworks that linked criteria to principles, but found only five appropriate publications. These frameworks were strictly hierarchical and thus unlikely to capture the interactions and interdependencies among different elements of FLR. Two of the five addressed all six principles. Second, we conducted a series of group exercises with experts to characterize the topology of FLR monitoring frameworks by linking criteria to principles and examining interconnections. We cataloged 18 criteria and 76 indicators, in a non-exhaustive exercise. Cognitive mapping of the interconnections between FLR principles and criteria showed that criteria are typically linked to more than one principle indicating the need to consider networked frameworks. However, no FLR monitoring frameworks currently exist for understanding and operationalizing all six principles, and integrating the interconnected processes underpinning FLR planning, monitoring, and assessment.
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Jagger et al. (2022) The Role of Forests and Trees in Poverty Dynamics
Jagger, P., Cheek, J.Z., Miller, D.C., Ryan, C., Shyamsundar, P., Sills, E. 2022. “The Role of Forests and Trees in Poverty Dynamics.” Forest Policy and Economics 140:102750.
Abstract
Understanding the contribution of forests to poverty alleviation and human well-being has never been more important. The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic are erasing gains in poverty reduction achieved over the past several decades. At the same time, climate change is increasing the frequency of extreme weather events and natural disasters, especially in poor rural communities. In this paper, we review approaches to measuring poverty and well-being finding that standard approaches to measuring poverty and poverty dynamics typically do not adequately consider environmental goods and services, leading to an incomplete understanding of poverty dynamics among policy makers and practitioners. We identify four archetypal poverty trajectories and discuss how subsistence and cash income, assets, and non-material benefits from forests and tree-based systems influence each of them. We draw on the broad literature on forests and livelihoods, acknowledging that the majority of the literature on the topic of forests and poverty relies on static, micro-level, and highly contextualized analyses. Our review suggests that forests and tree-based systems provide a pathway out of poverty only under very specific conditions, when high value goods are accessible and marketed, or when ecosystem services can be monetized for the benefit of people living in or near forests. However, the role that forests play in supporting and maintaining current consumption, diversifying incomes, and meeting basic needs may be extremely important, particularly for those experiencing transient poverty. We discuss negative externalities associated with living proximate to forests, including the special case of geographic poverty traps, which can occur in remote forested areas. To build a strong evidence base for policy makers we recommend that research on forest-poverty dynamics address longer time-frames (up to decades), larger and/or nested spatial scales, and are contextualized within the landscape, region, or national setting where it is conducted. Advancing our understanding of forest-poverty dynamics is critical, particularly in low and middle-income countries where large numbers of people live in or near forests or in landscapes with forest-agriculture mosaics. Policy makers should strive to understand the potential role for forest-based livelihood strategies among their suite of social protection and poverty reduction policies and programs, particularly for addressing transient poverty.
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Miller et al. (2022) Forests, trees and the eradication of poverty
Miller, D.C., Zavaleta Cheek, J., Mansourian, S., Wildburger, C. 2022. “Forests, Trees, and the Eradication of Poverty.” Forest Policy and Economics 140: 102753.
Abstract
Addressing poverty is an urgent global priority. Many of the world's poor and vulnerable people live in or near forests and rely on trees and other natural resources to support their livelihoods. Effectively tackling poverty and making progress toward the first of the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals to “end poverty in all its forms everywhere” must therefore consider forests and trees. But what do we know about the potential for forests and tree-based systems to contribute to poverty alleviation? This Special Issue responds to this question. It synthesises and presents available scientific evidence on the role of forests and tree-based systems in alleviating and, ultimately, eradicating poverty. The articles compiled here also develop new conceptual frameworks, identify research frontiers, and draw out specific recommendations for policy. The scope is global, although emphasis is placed on low- and middle-income countries where the majority of the world's poorest people live. This introductory article stakes out the conceptual, empirical and policy terrain relating to forests, trees and poverty and provides an overview of the contribution of the other seven articles in this collection. This Special Issue has direct implications for researchers, policymakers and other decision-makers related to the role of forests and tree-based systems in poverty alleviation. The included articles frame the relationships between forests, trees and poverty, identify research gaps and synthesize evidence to inform policy.
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Shyamsundar et al. (2022) Scaling smallholder tree cover restoration across the tropics
Shyamsundar, P., Cohen, F., Boucher, T.M., Kroeger, T., Erbaugh, J.T., Waterfield, G., Clarke, C., Cook-Patton, S.C., Garcia, E., Juma, K., Kaur, S., Leisher, C., Miller, D.C., Oester, K., Saigal, S., Siikamaki, J., Sills, E.O., Thaung, T., Zhang, X.X. 2022 “Scaling smallholder tree cover restoration across the tropics.” Global Environmental Change 76: 102591.
Abstract
Restoring tree cover in tropical countries has the potential to benefit millions of smallholders through improvements in income and environmental services. However, despite their dominant landholding shares in many countries, smallholders’ role in restoration has not been addressed in prior global or pan-tropical restoration studies. We fill this lacuna by using global spatial data on trees and people, national indicators of enabling conditions, and micro-level expert information. We find that by 2050, low-cost restoration is feasible within 280, 200, and 60 million hectares of tropical croplands, pasturelands, and degraded forestlands, respectively. Such restoration could affect 210 million people in croplands, 59 million people in pasturelands and 22 million people in degraded forestlands. This predominance of low-cost restoration opportunity in populated agricultural lands has not been revealed by prior analyses of tree cover restoration potential. In countries with low-cost tropical restoration potential, smallholdings comprise a significant proportion of agricultural lands in Asia (∼76 %) and Africa (∼60 %) but not the Americas (∼3%). Thus, while the Americas account for approximately half of 21st century tropical deforestation, smallholder-based reforestation may play a larger role in efforts to reverse recent forest loss in Asia and Africa than in the Americas. Furthermore, our analyses show that countries with low-cost restoration potential largely lack policy commitments or smallholder supportive institutional and market conditions. Discussions among practitioners and researchers suggest that four principles – partnering with farmers and prioritizing their preferences, reducing uncertainty, strengthening markets, and mobilizing innovative financing – can help scale smallholder-driven restoration in the face of these challenges.
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Sterling et al. (2022) The state of capacity development evaluation in biodiversity conservation and natural resource management
Sterling, E.J., Sigouin, A., Betley, E., Cheek, J.Z., Solomon, J.N., Kimberley, L., Porzecanski, A.L., Bynum, N., Cadena, B., Cheng, S.H., Clements, K.R., Finchum, R., Heresy, M., Gomez, A., Groom, M., Loffeld, T.A.C., Miller, D.C., Rakotobe, D., Rao, M., Roberts, R. 2022. “The state of capacity development evaluation in biodiversity conservation and natural resource management.” ORYX
Abstract
Capacity development is critical to long-term conservation success, yet we lack a robust and rigorous understanding of how well its effects are being evaluated. A comprehensive summary of who is monitoring and evaluating capacity development interventions, what is being evaluated and how, would help in the development of evidence-based guidance to inform design and implementation decisions for future capacity development interventions and evaluations of their effectiveness. We built an evidence map by reviewing peer-reviewed and grey literature published since 2000, to identify case studies evaluating capacity development interventions in biodiversity conservation and natural resource management. We used inductive and deductive approaches to develop a coding strategy for studies that met our criteria, extracting data on the type of capacity development intervention, evaluation methods, data and analysis types, categories of outputs and outcomes assessed, and whether the study had a clear causal model and/or used a systems approach. We found that almost all studies assessed multiple outcome types: most frequent was change in knowledge, followed by behaviour, then attitude. Few studies evaluated conservation outcomes. Less than half included an explicit causal model linking interventions to expected outcomes. Half of the studies considered external factors that could influence the efficacy of the capacity development intervention, and few used an explicit systems approach. We used framework synthesis to situate our evidence map within the broader literature on capacity development evaluation. Our evidence map (including a visual heat map) highlights areas of low and high representation in investment in research on the evaluation of capacity development.
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Sullivan et al. (2022) Impacts of large-scale land acquisitions on smallholder agriculture and livelihoods in Tanzania
Sullivan, J.A., Brown, D.G., Moyo, F., Jain, M., Agrawal, A. 2022. “Impacts of large-scale land acquisitions on smallholder agriculture and livelihoods in Tanzania.” Environmental Research Letters 17(8): 084019
Abstract
Improving agricultural productivity is a foundational sustainability challenge in the 21st century. Large-scale land acquisitions (LSLAs) have important effects on both well-being and the environment in the Global South. Their impacts on agricultural productivity and subsequent effects on farm incomes, food-security and the distribution of these outcomes across households remain under-investigated. In particular, prior studies do not sufficiently attend to the mechanistic nature of changes in household agricultural practices that affect LSLA outcomes. To address these challenges, we use a novel household dataset and a quasi-experimental design to estimate household-level changes in agricultural productivity and other LSLA outcomes in Tanzania. We use causal mediation analysis to assess how four common mechanisms—contract farming, land loss, market access and technology adoption around LSLAs—influence agricultural productivity. We find that households near LSLAs exhibit 20.2% (95% CI: 3.1%–37.3%) higher agricultural productivity, primarily due to increased crop prices and farmer selection of high-value crops. Importantly, the direction and magnitude of effect sizes associated with the different mechanisms vary. The presence of contract farming explains 18.1% (95% CI: 0.56%, 47%) of the effect size in agricultural productivity, whereas land loss reduces agricultural productivity by 26.8% (95% CI: −71.3%, −4.0%). Market access and technology adoption explain little to no portion of the effect size on agricultural productivity. Despite higher agricultural productivity mediated by contract farming, we do not find increased household incomes or food security. Plausible explanations include limited market access, higher crop prices restricting food access and elite capture of contract farming concentrating income effects to a few households. Our results stand in contrast to assumptions that technological spillovers occur through LSLAs and are the principal drivers of LSLA-induced agricultural transformation. We find instead that access to contract farming and high-value crops lead to greater agricultural productivity, but also that benefits related to these mechanisms are unequally distributed.
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2021
Afonso et al. (2021) Forest plantations and local economic development: Evidence from Minas Gerais, Brazil
Afonso, R. and Miller, D.C., 2021. “Forest plantations and local economic development: Evidence from Minas Gerais, Brazil.” Forest Policy and Economics 131
Abstract
Globally, Brazil is one of the most important producers of wood products from forest plantations. Climatic conditions suitable for high productivity coupled with strong market demand and other factors have led to a marked increase in the area devoted to forest plantations in the country. Wood production from these plantations has brought important macroeconomic benefits through export. However, knowledge of the socio-economic impacts of forest plantations at sub-national levels remains limited in Brazil as in other tropical country contexts. This study addresses this knowledge gap by analyzing the socioeconomic impacts of forest plantations across the municipalities of Minas Gerais, the state with the largest plantation area in Brazil since 1980. We use panel data regression methods to analyze the relationship between forest plantation area, poverty, and other variables over a 20-year period. The results show that an increase in forest plantation area is associated with a decrease in poverty over time. Our findings run counter to much of the current evidence on the socio-economic impacts of forest plantations and have important implications for research and policy on this topic not only in Brazil, but elsewhere in Latin America and beyond.
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Castle et al. (2021) The impacts of agroforestry interventions on Agricultural Productivity, Ecosystem Services, and Human Well-Being in Low and Middle Income Countries
Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Ordonez, P.J., Baylis, K. and Hughes, K., 2021. “The impacts of agroforestry interventions on agricultural productivity, ecosystem services, and human well‐being in low‐and middle‐income countries: A systematic review.” Campbell Systematic Reviews 17(2): e1167.
Abstract
Agroforestry, the intentional integration of trees or other woody perennials with crops or livestock in production systems, is being widely promoted as a conservation and development tool to help meet the 2030 UN Sustainable Development Goals. Donors, governments, and nongovernmental organizations have invested significant time and resources into developing and promoting agroforestry policies and programs in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs) worldwide. While a large body of literature on the impacts of agroforestry practices in LMICs is available, the social‐ecological impacts of agroforestry interventions is less well‐studied. This knowledge gap on the effectiveness of agroforestry interventions constrains possibilities for evidence‐based policy and investment decisions to advance sustainable development objectives.
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Chazdon et al. (2021) The intervention continuum in restoration ecology: rethinking the active–passive dichotomy
Chazdon, R.L., Falk, D.A., Banin, L.F., Wagner, M., Wilson, S.J., Grabowski, R.C., Suding, K.N. 2021. “The intervention continuum in restoration ecology: rethinking the active-passive dichotomy.” Restoration Ecology e13535
Abstract
The distinction often made between active and passive restoration approaches is a false dichotomy that persists in much research, policy, and financial structures today. We explore the contradictions imposed by this terminology and the merits of replacing this dichotomy with a continuum-based intervention framework. In practice, the main distinction between “passive” and “active” restoration lies primarily in the timing and extent of human interventions. We apply the intervention continuum framework to forest, grassland, stream, and peatland ecosystems, emphasizing that a range of restoration approaches within the scope of ecological or ecosystem restoration are typically employed in most projects, and all can contribute to the recovery of native ecosystems and prevention of further degradation. As restoration is fundamentally about the recovery of ecosystems, eliminating human sources of degradation is essential to enable ecosystem recovery processes, regardless of subsequent interventions that may be needed to assist recovery. Our review of restoration practices involving different levels of intervention highlights the benefits of recognizing a broader suite of restoration interventions in the financial and policy frameworks that currently underpin restoration activity. Effective restoration interventions emerge from an understanding of nature's intrinsic recovery potential and overcoming specific obstacles that limit this potential.
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Chazdon et al. (2021) Key challenges for governing forest and landscape restoration across different contexts
Chazdon, R.L., Wilson, S.J., Brondizio, E., Guariguata, M.R., Herbohn, J. 2021. “Key challenges for governing forest and landscape restoration across different contexts.” Land Use Policy 104: 104854
Abstract
Governance arrangements directly influence decision making processes and the degree to which different stakeholder groups are engaged in planning, implementing, and receiving benefits from Forest and Landscape Restoration (FLR). Narrow institutional and agency mandates must be better aligned to permit new ways of governing landscapes that are centered on the needs and capacities of local stakeholders. This special issue highlights challenges and opportunities for governing FLR at different scales and under different contexts across a range of tropical and subtropical forest biomes. In this introductory paper, we explore common threads from diverse studies comprising the special issue to highlight key challenges for effective governance of FLR across many different contexts. We discuss enabling factors and conditions that can help to overcome deficiencies in governance processes and outcomes and illustrate how these conditions are linked to the six principles of FLR. We conclude by emphasizing several gaps in understanding how governance arrangements influence the planning, implementation and monitoring of FLR.
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Ferraro, P. & Agrawal, A. (2021) Synthesizing evidence in sustainability science through harmonized experiments: Community monitoring in common pool resources
Ferraro, P.J., and Agrawal, A. 2021. “Synthesizing evidence in sustainability science through harmonized experiments: Community monitoring in common pool resources.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118(29): e2106489118
Over 30 years ago, Elinor Ostrom published Governing the Commons, a demonstration by counterexample that the successful management of common pool resources requires neither individual private property rights nor central government control. Her contribution and subsequent research identify more than a dozen institutional features, or “design principles,” purported to make successful community-based, common pool resource management more likely. Examples of these features include clearly defined group and resource boundaries, graduated sanctions, conflict-resolution mechanisms, enabling policy environments, and accountable monitoring systems. But after decades of theoretical and empirical studies, little is known about whether external interventions can enhance these features where they are weak or absent, or whether enhancing these features individually—rather than collectively—causes resource conditions to improve. These questions have long been identified as important for advancing sustainability science and practice. In this Special Feature on “Sustaining the Commons,” the authors try to answer these questions by developing and testing mechanism-based theories of institutions in complex socio-ecological systems.
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Hajjar, R., Oldekop, J.A., Cronkleton, P., Newton, P, Russell, A.J.M. and Zhou, W. A global analysis of the social and environmental outcomes of community forests. Nat Sustain 4, 216–224 (2021)
Abstract
Community forest management (CFM) has been promoted for decades as a way to merge environmental conservation with economic development and natural resource rights agendas. Yet many of these initiatives have also led to substantial socioeconomic and environmental trade-offs. We present a comprehensive global analysis of environmental, income and natural resource rights outcomes of CFM, using data from 643 cases in 51 countries. We find that while the majority of cases reported positive environmental and income-related outcomes, forest access and resource rights were often negatively affected by policies to formalize CFM, countering one of CFM’s principal goals. Positive outcomes across all three dimensions were rare. We show that biophysical conditions, de facto tenure rights, national context, user-group characteristics and intervention types are key predictors of joint positive outcomes. These findings highlight key conducive conditions for CFM interventions, which can inform CFM design to ensure positive outcomes across multiple sustainability dimensions.
Hajjar et al. (2021) Levers for alleviating poverty in forests
Hajjar, R., Newton, P., Ihalainen, L., Agrawal, A., Alix-Garcia, J., Castle, S.E. et al. 2021. “Levers for alleviating poverty in forests.” Forest Policy and Economics 132: 102589.
Abstract
An extensive set of policies, programmes, technologies and strategies have been implemented in the forest sector. Collectively, these ‘levers’ cover a diverse range of approaches, at a variety of scales and are governed by many different stakeholders. It is important for decision-makers to understand which levers might be most useful in achieving poverty alleviation. This paper seeks to answer the question: which forest management policies, programmes, technologies and strategies have been effective at alleviating poverty? We studied 21 different rights-based, regulatory, market and supply chain, and forest and tree management levers for which we could identify a plausible theory of change of how implementation of that lever might alleviate poverty. For every lever we: define and describe the lever; describe the logic or theory of change by which the lever might plausibly be expected to alleviate poverty; summarize the available evidence showing how the lever has alleviated poverty; and discuss the variables that explain heterogeneity in outcomes. Overall, we found limited evidence of these levers being associated with reducing poverty (i.e. moving people out of poverty). Some of the strongest evidence for poverty reduction came from ecotourism, community forest management, agroforestry and, to a lesser extent, payments for ecosystem services (PES). However, we found substantial, varied and context-dependent evidence of several levers being associated with mitigating poverty (i.e. by improving well-being). A multitude of cases showing positive outcomes for poverty mitigation came from community forest management, forest producer organisations, small and medium forest enterprises, PES, and tree crop contract production. A combination of more rigorous and long-term research designs, along with examinations of the cost-effectiveness of different levers, would go a long way to contributing to the design of effective interventions for poverty alleviation.
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Liao et al. (2021) Carbon emissions from the global land rush and potential mitigation
Liao, C., Nolte, K., Sullivan, J.A., Brown, D.G., Lay, J., Althoff, C., and Agrawal, A. 2021. “Carbon emissions from the global land rush and potential mitigation.” Nature Food 2(1): 15-18.
Abstract
Global drivers and carbon emissions associated with large-scale land transactions have been poorly investigated. Here we examine major factors behind such transactions (income, agricultural productivity, availability of arable land and water scarcity) and estimate potential carbon emissions under different levels of deforestation. We find that clearing lands transacted between 2000 and 2016 (36.7 Mha) could have emitted ~2.26 GtC, but constraining land clearing to historical deforestation rates would reduce emissions related to large-scale land transactions to ~0.81 GtC.
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Liao et al. (2021) Clean energy transitions and human well-being outcomes in Lower and Middle Income Countries: A systematic review
Liao, C., Erbaugh, J.T., Kelly, A.C., and Agrawal, A. 2021. “Clean energy transitions and human well-being outcomes in Lower and Middle Income Countries: A systematic review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 145: 111063
Abstract
Clean energy promises a wide range of individual and collective benefits. Though there is substantial research on the benefits of clean energy for specific populations, systematic assessments on household level outcomes resulting from clean energy adoption remain limited, especially for Lower and Middle Income Countries (L&MICs). Limited systematic knowledge about clean energy transitions hinders conceptual development and effective policies for improved access to, and more widespread adoption of, clean energy. In this research, we review 107 peer-reviewed articles to examine systematically household energy transitions in L&MICs. We consider factors that have a potential causal impact and identify associations between clean energy adoption and household well-being. We find substantial variation in energy transition pathways across L&MICs. Higher levels of household education, incomes, asset holdings, and the presence of credit and subsidy programs are associated with clean energy adoption, and such adoption likely facilitates a suite of socioeconomic benefits. Our review thus advances knowledge about the mechanisms for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7 and promoting greater human well-being through clean energy adoption.
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Miller et al. (2021) Forests, trees and poverty alleviation: Policy implications of current knowledge
Miller, D.C., Mansourian, S., Gabay, M., Hajjar, R., Jagger, P., Kamoto, J.F., Newton, P., Oldekop, J.A., Razafindratsima, O.H., Shyamsundar, P. and Sunderland, T., 2021. “Forests, trees and poverty alleviation: Policy implications of current knowledge.” Forest Policy and Economics 131: 102566.
Abstract
Major advances have been made over the past two decades in our understanding of the contribution forests and trees outside forests make to human well-being across the globe. Yet this knowledge has not always been incorporated into broader poverty and development policy agendas. The result is a missed opportunity to effectively and sustainably reach national and international poverty alleviation goals. Here, we address the need for greater integration of forests and trees in development policy. We distill five key findings based on the current evidence base and discuss their implications for decision-makers. We find that (1) forests and trees are critical to global efforts to end poverty but (2) their benefits to human well-being are unevenly distributed. Although the evidence indicates that (3) forests and trees can help the rural poor as they face profound global changes, it also shows that (4) poorly aligned forest and land use policies and programmes may lead to excessive costs being borne by the poor. However, we do find that (5) policy and management measures exist that can enable forests and trees to effectively address poverty goals even as there is no ‘one size fits all’ solution. Key overarching policy implications of these findings include the need to integrate forests and trees more explicitly into land-use planning and poverty reduction programs, strengthen forest property rights, self-governance and technical skills of forest-reliant communities, and carefully tailor policy measures to the context in which they are implemented.
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Miller et al. (2021) A global review of the impact of forest property rights interventions on poverty
Miller, D.C., Rana, P., Nakamura, K. et al. 2021. “A global review of the impact of forest property rights intervention on poverty.” Global Environmental Change 66: 102218.Abstract
Secure property rights are widely understood as critical for socio-economic development and sustainable land management in forested areas. Policies and programs, ranging from devolution of specific resource rights to formal land titling, have therefore been implemented to strengthen forest tenure and property rights in countries around the world. Despite the prevalence and importance of these efforts, however, systematic understanding of their effects on poverty remains lacking. We address this gap by systematically reviewing evidence on the impact of forest property rights interventions on poverty worldwide. We drew from a systematic map of evidence on forest-poverty links (Cheng et al., 2019) and used a population-intervention-comparator-outcome (PICO) framework to identify relevant studies. Our final dataset included 61 articles published from 2002 to 2016 comprising 91 case studies across 24 countries. Of these, only 11 articles (22 cases) used quasi-experimental methods to control for confounders. We find that almost all studied interventions (n = 88; 97%) focused on rights to access a forest area or withdraw resources from it. Relatively few studied interventions supported the more extensive property rights of exclusion (32%) and alienation (10%). Overall, reported impacts on both income/consumption and capital/assets dimensions of poverty were generally positive or mixed. Results from more robust quasi-experimental assessments showed greater variation, with case studies as likely to report negative as positive impacts on both poverty dimensions. We find tentative support for the economic theory that more secure property rights yield positive welfare effects. However, the paucity of evidence from more robust impact assessments constrains our ability to draw generalizable conclusions about the poverty impacts of different kinds of forest property rights interventions.
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Nerfa et al. (2021) Practitioner views on the determinants of tropical forest restoration longevity
Nerfa, L., Wilson, S.J., Reid, J.L., Rhemtulla, J.M. 2021. “Practitioner views on the determinants of tropical forest restoration longevity.” Restoration Ecology 29(3): e13345.
Abstract
Ensuring the long-term persistence of tropical forest restoration projects is vital to maintaining carbon stocks, biodiversity, and other benefits of restored ecosystems. But our understanding of the factors that determine restoration longevity—the age that a restored ecosystem attains before being converted to another land use—is limited, and derived primarily from studies based on remote sensing or observations at a single site over time. In this article, we apply a new approach by surveying restoration practitioners from across the tropics on the factors that they perceive to influence restoration longevity. Through an online survey (including categorical and open-ended questions) we asked practitioners about the ecological and social characteristics of their restoration projects, and their views on what factors contribute to project longevity. We summarized the information on project characteristics, and conducted thematic analysis and coding of the longevity drivers discussed by respondents. A total of 29 respondents from 15 tropical countries completed our survey, with the majority of projects occurring on previously pastured lands in wet and lowland tropical forests. Practitioners discussed social factors more than twice as frequently as ecological factors. The most frequently cited social factor key to restoration longevity was engagement with multiple stakeholders, followed by long-term funding, the need for innovative project design, as well as effective and inspirational leadership. Overall, the voices of practitioners underscore the critical need to address local social context in order to achieve long-term forest recovery.
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Rana et al. (2021) Predicting the long-term social and ecological impacts of tree-planting programs: Evidence from northern India
Rana, P. and Miller, D.C. 2021. “Predicting the long-term social and ecological impacts of tree-planting programs: Evidence from northern India.” World Development 140: 105367.
Planting trees has long been a major forest improvement and management activity globally. Forest plantations take years, even decades to mature and establish. Yet most national and international projects to support plantations are of relatively short duration, which presents a major challenge to near-term accountability as well as assessment of longer-term social and ecological impacts. Here, we address this challenge by identifying and empirically validating a set of predictive proxy indicators (PPIs)—measures on key variables taken during program implementation that are predictive of longer-term impacts—for community-oriented tree-planting efforts in northern India. Using process-tracing and qualitative comparative analysis, we find that clusters of PPIs explained vegetation growth trajectories and other outcomes over more than a decade in 23 randomly selected public forest plantations in Kangra district, Himachal Pradesh. PPIs relating to property rights and local livelihood benefits, community-led monitoring and enforcement, and seedling survival rate, together, were associated with successful long-term forest plantation outcomes, including more tree cover and socio-economic benefits for local communities. The causal pathways identified in this study suggest that measuring and comparing indicator values in specific spatial and temporal contexts can help to assess the likelihood and directionality of the long-term social and ecological impacts of forest plantations. In addition to the empirical contribution it makes, this study also demonstrates a novel approach to understanding long-term impacts of public forest plantations relevant to country contexts around the world.
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Razafindratsima et al. (2021) Reviewing the evidence on the roles of forests and tree-based systems in poverty dynamics
Razafindratsima, O.H., Kamoto, J.F., Sills, E.O., Mutta, D.N., Song, C., Kabwe, G., Castle, S.E. et al. 2021. “Reviewing the evidence on the roles of forests and tree-based systems in poverty dynamics.” Forest Policy and Economics 131: 102576.
Abstract
The alleviation of global poverty is a major objective of the 2030 UN Sustainable Development Goals (notably SDG1 “to end poverty in all its forms everywhere”). Many rural people experiencing poverty often rely on forests and tree-based systems, such as agroforestry, suggesting the existence of links between such systems and poverty outcomes. This paper reviews the evidence of such links across multiple dimensions of poverty and well-being, based on an expert panel convened by the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) and an extensive literature search. We consider whether, how, where, when, and for whom forests and trees in the wider landscape influence poverty dynamics. We organize the evidence according to four pathways through which forests and trees influence household poverty dynamics: 1) helping households move out of poverty; 2) maintaining well-being levels through subsistence, food security, health, and cultural and spiritual values; 3) preventing declines by mitigating risks and stabilizing consumption; 4) decreasing well-being by generating negative externalities that could trap or move households into poverty. We found that local context matters considerably, with the roles of forests and trees strongly varying across geographical, social, economic, and political settings. Another key finding is that evidence of forests and trees providing livelihood diversification and benefits that help households move out of poverty remains limited, based primarily on a small number of case studies. Evidence on the impact of gender gaps in relation to forest landscapes and poverty pathways is also lacking. However, our findings do suggest that ecosystem services provided by forests and trees play critical roles in maintaining well-being and food security and have the potential to contribute more to helping households move out of poverty and mitigating risks amplified by climate change. This review also highlights cautionary findings related to negative forest externalities that can maintain or move households into poverty. Together, these findings call for policy efforts to support the conservation and sustainable management of forest landscapes and agroforestry systems that are more targeted towards meeting the diverse needs of the rural poor. Our results also point to a need for greater effort to address gender disparities, which have been largely overlooked yet provide a critical opportunity to not only enhance gender equality but also advance sustainable poverty reduction goals.
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Shyamsundar et al. (2021) Global forces of change: Implications for forest-poverty dynamics
Shyamsundar, P., Sauls, L.A., Cheek, J.Z., Sullivan-Wiley, K., Erbaugh, J.T., and Krishnapriya, P.P. 2021. “Global forces of change: Implications for forest-poverty dynamics.” Forest Policy and Economics 133: 102607.
Abstract
This article examines global trends likely to influence forests and tree-based systems and considers the poverty implications of these interactions. The trends, identified through a series of expert discussions and review of the literature, include: (i) climatic impacts mediated through changes in forests, (ii) growth in commodity markets, (iii) shifts in private and public forest sector financing, (iv) technological advances and rising interconnectivity, (v) global socio-political movements, and (vi) emerging infectious diseases. These trends bring opportunities and risks to the forest-reliant poor. A review of available evidence suggests that in a business-as-usual scenario, the cumulative risks posed by these global forces, in conjunction with limited rights, resources, and skills required to prosper from global changes, are likely to place poor and transient poor households under additional stress. The article concludes with an assessment of how interventions for enhancing forest management, combined with supportive policy and institutional conditions, can contribute to a different and more prosperous future for forests and people.
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Williams et al. (2021) Land-use changes associated with large-scale land transactions in Ethiopia
Williams, T.G., Thrush, S.A., Sullivan, J.A., Liao, C., Chesterman, N., Agrawal, A., Guikema, S.D., and Brown, D.G. 2021. “Land-use changes associated with large-scale land transactions in Ethiopia.
Large-scale land transactions (LSLTs) can precipitate dramatic changes in land systems. Ethiopia has experienced one of the largest amounts of LSLTs in Africa, yet their effects on local land systems are poorly understood. In this study, we quantify the direct and indirect land use and land cover (LULC) changes associated with LSLTs at eight socio-environmentally diverse sites in central and western Ethiopia. To estimate these effects, we employ a novel, two-stage counterfactual analysis. We first use a region-growing procedure to identify a “control” site with comparable landscape-level characteristics to each LSLT. Then, we sample and reweight points within each control site to further improve covariate balance. This two-stage approach both controls for potential confounding factors at multiple spatial levels and reduces the costs of extensive LULC data classification. Our results show that the majority of the reported transacted area (62%) remained unconverted to large-scale agriculture. Most of the land that was developed into large-scale agriculture displaced smallholder agriculture (53%), followed by conversion of woodland/shrubland (35%) and forest (9%). Beyond their boundaries, LSLTs indirectly influenced rates of smallholder agricultural expansion and abandonment, pointing to site dependence in how LSLTs affect adjacent land systems. In particular, the low prevalence of forest within and around these LSLTs underscores a need to move beyond measures of deforestation as proxies for LSLT effects on land systems. Our two-stage approach shows promise as an efficient method for generating robust counterfactuals and thereby LULC change estimates in systems lacking wall-to-wall LULC data.
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2020
Amadu et al. (2020) Agroforestry as a pathway to agricultural yield impacts in climate-smart agriculture investments: Evidence from southern Malawi
Amadu, F.O., D.C. Miller, and P.E. McNamara. 2020. “Agroforestry as a pathway to agricultural yield impacts in climate-smart agriculture investments: Evidence from southern Malawi.” Ecological Economics 167: 106443. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.106443
Abstract
Agroforestry is widely promoted for delivering not only the main food security objective of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) but also increasing resilience and mitigating climate change. Yet rigorous estimates of the impact of this pathway on agricultural yields in CSA interventions remain limited. Here we analyze maize yield effects of agroforestry within a large CSA project, funded by the US Agency for International Development and implemented from 2009 to 2014 in southern Malawi. Using original survey data from 808 households across five districts, we apply a double hurdle specification with a control function approach to account for the endogeneity of CSA program participation and the intensity of agroforestry fertilizer trees (as a proxy for agroforestry adoption) in the study area. We find a positive and statistically significant yield effect of CSA program participation and the intensity of agroforestry fertilizer trees: maize yields increased, on average, by 20% for participation, and 2% for the intensity of fertilizer trees – a modest but useful result with implications for increasing agricultural productivity among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere. More broadly, our results show that incorporating agroforestry into CSA interventions could enhance agricultural yields among smallholder farmers in the face of climate change — a crucial aspect of sustainable development goals on hunger and climate adaptation.
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Amadu et al. (2020) Understanding the adoption of climate-smart agriculture: A farm-level typology with empirical evidence from southern Malawi
Amadu, F.O., P.E. McNamara, and D.C. Miller. 2020. “Understanding the adoption of climate-smart agriculture: A farm-level typology with empirical evidence from southern Malawi.” World Development 126: 104692.
Abstract
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is increasingly important for advancing rural development and environmental sustainability goals in developing countries. Over the past decade, the international community has committed billions of dollars to support various practices under the banner of CSA. Despite this effort, however, CSA adoption remains low in many contexts. Lack of conceptual clarity about the range of potential farm-level CSA practices across contexts impedes understanding of CSA adoption in developing countries. Here we review relevant literature to develop a typology of farm-level CSA practices to facilitate analyses of CSA adoption. The typology consists of six categories, organized from least to most resource intensive: (1) residue addition, (2) non-woody plant cultivation, (3) assisted regeneration, (4) woody plant cultivation, (5) physical infrastructure, and (6) mixed measures. We use the typology to generate and test hypotheses about CSA adoption using primary household survey data from a large aidfunded CSA intervention area in southern Malawi. We then use recursive bivariate probit regression (controlling for endogeneity and selection bias) to estimate the effect of program participation on adoption across CSA categories. We find positive and statistically significant effects of program participation on adoption of CSA practices generally with the strongest effects on resource-intensive CSA categories. Results demonstrate the potential for wider application of the typology to build knowledge of the effectiveness of CSA promotion efforts across different social and environmental contexts. Our findings also suggest the importance of external support for the adoption of more resource-intensive CSA practices among rural households and communities in Malawi and elsewhere in the developing world.
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Erbaugh et al. (2020) Global forest restoration and the importance of prioritizing local communities
Erbaugh, J.T., Pradhan, N., Adams, J., Oldekop, J.A., Agrawal, A., Brockington, D., Pritchard, R., and Chharte, A. 2020. “Global forest restoration and the importance of prioritizing local communities.” Nature Ecology & Evolution, 4 (11): 1472-1476.
Abstract
Forest restoration occupies centre stage in global conversations about carbon removal and biodiversity conservation, but recent research rarely acknowledges social dimensions or environmental justice implications related to its implementation. We find that 294.5 million people live on tropical forest restoration opportunity land in the Global South, including 12% of the total population in low-income countries. Forest landscape restoration that prioritizes local communities by affording them rights to manage and restore forests provides a promising option to align global agendas for climate mitigation, conservation, environmental justice and sustainable development.
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Garcia et al. (2020) The Global Forest Transition as a Human Affair
Garcia, C.A., Savilaakso, S., Verburg, R.W., Gutierrez, V., Wilson, S.J., … Waeber, P.O.2020. “The global forest transition as a human affair.” One Earth 2(5):417-428.
Abstract
Forests across the world stand at a crossroads where climate and land-use changes are shaping their future. Despite demonstrations of political will and global efforts, forest loss, fragmentation, and degradation continue unabated. No clear evidence exists to suggest that these initiatives are working. A key reason for this apparent ineffectiveness could lie in the failure to recognize the agency of all stakeholders involved. Landscapes do not happen. We shape them. Forest transitions are social and behavioral before they are ecological. Decision makers need to integrate better representations of people’s agency in their mental models. A possible pathway to overcome this barrier involves eliciting mental models behind policy decisions to allow better representation of human agency, changing perspectives to better understand divergent points of view, and refining strategies through explicit theories of change. Games can help decision makers in all of these tasks.
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Liao et al. (2020) Landscape sustainability science in the drylands: mobility, rangelands and livelihoods
Liao, C., Agrawal, A., Clark, P.E., Levin, S.A., and Rubenstein, D.I. 2020. “Landscape sustainability science in the drylands: mobility, rangelands, and livelihoods.” Landscape Ecology 35(11): 2433-2447.
Abstract
Context
The global drylands cover 41% of the terrestrial surface and support millions of pastoralists and host diverse flora and fauna. Ongoing socioeconomic and environmental transformations in drylands make it imperative to understand how to achieve the twin goals of food security and ecosystem health.
Objectives
The review focuses on examining the patterns of rangeland vegetation dynamics and livelihood transformations associated with changes in pastoralist mobility.
Methods
We conducted a comprehensive review of literature on dryland sustainability based on the coupled systems framework and through the lens of mobility, which reflects not only human and livestock movements but also the unique lifestyles and cultural identities of people in drylands.
Results
We find that mobility, which is critical for pastoralists to survive and thrive in the drylands, is generally in decline and has significant implications on dryland sustainability. Reduced mobility exacerbates bush encroachment and land degradation, as sedentarized pastoralists use the rangelands more recursively. Associated with declining mobility is livelihood intensification and diversification, but such livelihood transitions may carry both socioeconomic and environmental risks.
Conclusions
We argue that to advance landscape sustainability science and reconcile concerns over environmental conservation and human well-being across the global drylands, we must better understand the underlying mechanisms of coupled systems transitions through the lens of mobility, and integrate the perspectives of multiple stakeholders with fundamentally different interests and priorities.
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Liao et al. (2020) Spatial patterns of large-scale land transactions and their potential socio-environmental outcomes in Cambodia, Ethiopia, Liberia, and Peru
Liao, C., Jung, S., Agrawal, A., Brown, D. 2020. Socio-Environmental Patterns of Large-Scale Land Transactions: Evidence from Ethiopia, Liberia, Cambodia, and Peru. Land Degradation and Development
Abstract
Recent large‐scale land transactions, often framed as “land grabbing,” are historically unprecedented. Millions of hectares of land have changed hands for agriculture‐driven development over the past decade, and their implementation generates substantial risk of land degradation. This paper aims to investigate land transaction patterns and evaluate their potential socio‐environmental impacts in Cambodia, Ethiopia, Liberia, and Peru. We undertake a novel spatially explicit approach to quantify land transactions, and conduct scenario‐based analyses to explore their implementation consequences on people, land, and carbon emission. Our results demonstrate that existing global datasets on land transactions substantially underestimate their incidence, but can either exaggerate or underreport transacted areas. While confirming that land transactions are more likely to occur in sparsely populated, poorer, and more forested areas, our scenario‐based analyses reveal that if fully implemented for agricultural development, land transactions in the four countries will affect more than one million people, yield over 2 Gt of carbon emissions, and disrupt vast swathes of forests. Our findings refute the “empty land” discourse in government policy, and highlight the consequences of land degradation that can occur at an unexpected scale in the “global land rush.” Future policy‐making needs to anticipate the risk of land degradation in terms of deforestation and carbon emission while pursuing agriculture‐driven development through land transactions.
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McGrath et al. (2020) Exploring Environmental Attitudes and Forest Program Uptake with Nonindustrial Private Forest Owners in Michigan
McGrath, F.L., Smalligan, M., Watkins, C., Agrawal, A. 2020. “Exploring Environmental Attitudes and Forest Program Uptake with Nonindustrial Private Forest Owners in Michigan.” Society & Natural Resources 34(4): 411-431
Abstract
Government programs in the United States offer benefits and opportunities to help private landowners manage their forests; however, participation is very low. Currently, little is known about the barriers landowners may face in accessing information about these programs. Using a landowner survey across four counties in Michigan, we investigate this by (1) exploring current participation in forest programs and (2) analyzing if landowners experience barriers to learning more about the programs available. We find that landowners who are older, perceive themselves as active managers, and are members of a land management organization are more likely to participate in forest programs. Our results also indicate that those wanting to learn more about the programs available have more dominant environmental viewpoints (e.g. humans have the right to modify and rule over nature). We argue that targeted approaches, for example, partnering with private landowner organizations, may increase landowner participation in government forest programs.
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Miller et al. (2020) Do Trees on Farms Improve Household Well-being: Evidence from National Panel Data Uganda
Miller, D.C., J.C. Muñoz-Mora, L.V. Rasmussen, A. Zezza. 2020. “Do Trees on Farms Improve Household Well-Being? Evidence from National Panel Data in Uganda.” Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 3: 101
Abstract
Trees on farms provide livelihood benefits to households across Africa. To date, however, evidence on how such trees affect household wellbeing over time remains lacking. Evidence is especially sparse at the national level where it has particular value for policymaking. To address this knowledge gap, we use nationally-representative panel data from Uganda to examine how on-farm tree growing may affect two dimensions of household wellbeing: income and food security and nutrition. We analyzed household-level data from the 2005-06, 2010-11, and 2013-14 Ugandan National Panel Surveys, including measures on adoption and abandonment of trees on farms, demographic factors, and other socio-economic variables. We used a fixed-effect panel specification and probabilistic models to assess the relationship between the area devoted to trees on farms and household income and nutrition outcomes for 1395 households across Uganda. Our results suggest that having trees on farms, especially fruit trees, is associated with improvements in both total household consumption and nutritional outcomes (measured by weight and wasting status of children under five). These findings suggest the important role trees on farms can play in poverty reduction and sustainable development efforts in Uganda and other countries in Africa and beyond.
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Miller et al. (2020) The impacts of agroforestry interventions on agricultural productivity, ecosystem services, and human well-being in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review
Miller, D.C., P.J. Ordoñez, S.E. Brown, S. Forrest, N.J. Nava, K. Hughes, and K. Baylis. 2020. “The impacts of agroforestry interventions on agricultural productivity, ecosystem services, and human well-being in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review."
Abstract
Background: Agroforestry, the intentional integration of trees or other woody perennials with crops or livestock in production systems, is being widely promoted as a conservation and development tool to help meet the 2030 UN Sustainable Development Goals. Donors, governments, and nongovernmental organizations have invested significant time and resources into developing and promoting agroforestry policies and programs in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) worldwide. While a large body of literature on the impacts of agroforestry practices in LMICs is available, the social-ecological impacts of agroforestry interventions is less well-studied. This knowledge gap on the effectiveness of agroforestry interventions constrains possibilities for evidence-based policy and investment decisions to advance sustainable development objectives. Objectives: The primary objective of this Campbell systematic review was to synthesize the available evidence on the impacts of agroforestry interventions in LMICs on agricultural productivity, ecosystem services, and human well-being. The secondary objectives were to identify key pathways through which agroforestry interventions lead to various outcomes and how the interventions affect different sub-groups of the population.
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Miller et al. (2020) Forests as pathways to prosperity: Empirical insights and conceptual advances
Miller, D.C., R. Hajjar. 2020. “Forests as Pathways to Prosperity: Empirical Insights and Conceptual Advances.” World Development 125: 104647
Abstract
The role of forests in supporting current consumption and helping people cope with seasonal, climatic, and other stressors is increasingly well understood. But can forests help rural households climb out of poverty? And can forests provide a pathway to prosperity that includes more widely shared economic benefits and improvements in other aspects of human well-being? This introduction to the Special Issue on “Forests as Pathways to Prosperity” reviews the literature on forest livelihoods in developing countries to synthesize evidence relating to these questions. We find that available research primarily examines poverty mitigation aspects of forests rather than the potential role of forest conservation, management, and use in alleviating poverty or promoting broader prosperity. To increase understanding of forest-livelihood relationships we propose a framework based on the concept of prosperity, which draws particular attention to human well-being beyond economic and material dimensions. We argue that explicitly taking a more expansive view can enable better accounting for the diverse ways forests contribute to human welfare, expand the constituency for forests, and inform policies to more sustainably manage forests within wider landscapes. Together, our review and the other articles in this volume advance these objectives by providing new analytical frameworks, empirical insights, and theoretical understanding to build knowledge on linkages between forests, poverty, and broader prosperity.
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Mustalahti, I. & Agrawal, A. (2020) Research trends: Responsibilization in natural resource governance
Mustalahti, I., Agrawal, A. 2020. “Research trends: Responsibilization in natural resource governance.” Forest Policy and Economics 121. 102308
Abstract
The diversity of governance instruments for natural resources provides a rich analytical field for scholars of public action and policy. Existing research contributions on natural resources governance suggest that governance interventions, coupled with the diversity of contexts in which they occur, are associated with many different social and ecological outcomes and careful analysis is critical to attribute outcomes to interventions. This special issue highlights a specific thematic and analytical focus – responsibilization – that we suggest as being common across the diversity of post-state governance arrangements. Responsibilization has attracted attention in other fields of governance – particularly education and health. Broadly, the process of responsibilization is associated with a transfer of responsibilities to administrative arrangements and agents subordinate within a decision-making hierarchy; in turn, decision units receiving new responsibilities adopt the goals of governance and carry associated responsibilities as their own. The nine articles included in this special issue show how responsibilization unfolds in different forms of decentered natural resource governance. We find that in diverse contexts, the process of responsibilization denotes the assignment of new responsibilities and the emergence and creation of responsible subjects but often without the powers and resources necessary to carry out these responsibilities. Responsible subjects, by becoming responsible for their own actions, behaviors, and well-being, also contribute to greater societal well-being, or what has summarily been called ‘well-doing’. Based on the empirical materials in the included studies, we build upon an analytical approach to governance that takes institutions, incentives, and information as its building blocks. Our analysis draws attention to and leads to a call for governance capacities and resources, as well as capabilities, for local decision makers and agents in proportion to their responsibilities. Inclusive governance of natural resources thus requires that legal governance mandates be matched to resources and powers for lower level decision-making agents to complement and support their mandates and capabilities.
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Newton et al. (2020) The Number and Spatial Distribution of Forest Proximate People Globally
Newton, P., A. Kinzer, D.C. Miller, J.A. Oldekop, A. Agrawal. 2020. “The number and spatial distribution of forest-proximate people globally.” One Earth 3: 363-370.
Abstract
Forests around the world are critical for supporting the livelihoods of people who live near them. For example, many people rely on forests as a source of fuelwood for cooking. Others harvest and sell timber, fruits, or other forest products as a source of income. Organizations that support forest conservation and sustainable development projects around the world are interested in understanding how many people live within or near to forests, in order to prioritize and target funding and to measure the effects of their projects on people’s lives. We superimposed data on the spatial distribution of forests globally with data on human population density, to estimate that 1.6 billion rural people lived within 5 km of a forest in 2012. Two thirds of these people lived in tropical and low- or middle-income countries. Our research provides concrete, global estimates and maps of places where people and forests coexist. However, not everyone who lives near a forest necessarily depends on its resources.
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Oldekop et al (2020) Forest-linked livelihoods in a globalized world
Oldekop, J.A., Rasmussen, L.V., Agrawal, A., Bebbington, A.J., Meyfroidt, P., Bengston, D.N., Blackman, A., Brooks, S., Davidson-Hunt, I., Davies, P., Dinsi, S.C…. Wilson, S.J. 2020. “Forest-linked livelihoods in a globalized world.” Nature Plants 6(12): 1400-1407.
Abstract
Forests have re-taken centre stage in global conversations about sustainability, climate and biodiversity. Here, we use a horizon scanning approach to identify five large-scale trends that are likely to have substantial medium- and long-term effects on forests and forest livelihoods: forest megadisturbances; changing rural demographics; the rise of the middle-class in low- and middle-income countries; increased availability, access and use of digital technologies; and large-scale infrastructure development. These trends represent human and environmental processes that are exceptionally large in geographical extent and magnitude, and difficult to reverse. They are creating new agricultural and urban frontiers, changing existing rural landscapes and practices, opening spaces for novel conservation priorities and facilitating an unprecedented development of monitoring and evaluation platforms that can be used by local communities, civil society organizations, governments and international donors. Understanding these larger-scale dynamics is key to support not only the critical role of forests in meeting livelihood aspirations locally, but also a range of other sustainability challenges more globally. We argue that a better understanding of these trends and the identification of levers for change requires that the research community not only continue to build on case studies that have dominated research efforts so far, but place a greater emphasis on causality and causal mechanisms, and generate a deeper understanding of how local, national and international geographical scales interact.
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Ota et al. (2020) Achieving Quality Forest and Landscape Restoration in the Tropics
Ota, L., Chazdon, R.L., Herbohn, J., Gregorio, N., Mukul, S.A., Wilson, S.J. 2020. “Achieving quality forest and landscape restoration in the tropics.” Forests 11(8):820.
Abstract
Forest and landscape restoration (FLR) is being carried out across the world to meet ambitious global goals. However, the scale of these efforts combined with the timeframe in which they are supposed to take place may compromise the quality of restoration, and thus limit the persistence of restoration on the landscape. This paper presents a synthesis of ten case studies identified as FLR to critically analyse implemented initiatives, their outcomes, and main challenges, with an eye to improving future efforts. The identified FLR projects are diverse in terms of their spatial coverage, objectives; types of interventions; and initial socioeconomic, institutional, and environmental conditions. The six principles of FLR—which have been widely adopted in theory by large global organisations—are inadequately addressed across the initiatives presented here. The identified FLR project or interventions, although expected to offer diverse benefits, face many challenges including the lack of long-term sustainability of project interventions, limited uptake by regional and national agencies, limited monitoring, reporting and learning, poor governance structures, and technical barriers, which are mainly owing to institutional weaknesses. On the basis of these cases, we propose that the best pathway to achieving FLR is via an incremental process in which a smaller number of more achievable objectives are set and implemented over time, rather than setting highly ambitious targets that implementers struggle to achieve.
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Robson et al. (2020) Youth and the Future of Community Forest
Robson, J.P., Wilson, S.J., Sanchez, C.M., and Bhatt, A. 2020. “Youth and the future of community forestry.” Land 9(11):406
Abstract
Forests managed by Indigenous and other local communities generate important benefits for livelihood, and contribute to regional and global biodiversity and carbon sequestration goals. Yet, challenges to community forestry remain. Rural out-migration, for one, can make it hard for communities to maintain broad and diverse memberships invested in local forest commons. This includes young people, who can contribute critical energy, ideas, and skills and are well positioned to take up community forest governance and work, but often aspire to alternative livelihoods and lifestyles. Through an initiative called the Future of Forest Work and Communities, we sought to connect researchers and practitioners with young people living in forest regions, and explore whether community forestry is, or could be, a viable option for them in a globalising world. We achieved this through two phases of qualitative research: youth visioning workshops and questionnaires conducted in 14 forest communities and regions across 9 countries, and a more in-depth case study of two forest communities in Oaxaca, Mexico, using participant observation and semi-structured interviews. We found important synergies across sites. Youth held strong connections with their communities and local forests, but work and/or study aspirations meant many would likely leave their home communities (at least for a time). Community forestry was not seen as an obvious livelihood pathway by a majority of youth, although interest in forest work was evident through participation in several workshop activities. As community leadership and support organisations consider community forestry as an engine of local development, the research highlights the importance of engaging local youth to understand their interests and ideas, and thus identify practical and meaningful ways to empower them as community and territorial actors.
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Sahide et al. (2020) The boom of social forestry policy and the bust of social forests in Indonesia: Developing and applying an access-exclusion framework to assess policy outcomes
Sahide, M.A.K., Fisher, M.R., Erbaugh, J.T., Intarini, D., Dharmiasih, W., Makmur, M., Faturachmat, F., Verheijen, B., and Maryudi, A. 2020. “The boom of social forestry policy and the bust of social forests in Indonesia: Developing and applying an access-exclusion framework to assess policy outcomes.” Forest policy and economics 120: 102290.
Abstract
Governments around the world are promoting social forests as part of their stated commitments for sustainability and social justice. Since 2014, social forest policy in Indonesia has undergone rapid expansion, increasing by a factor of five, from 653,311 ha to around 3,369,583 ha in 2019. This paper examines the processes through which social forest policy is implemented to consider who benefits (access) and who loses (exclusion) within different policy stages. We identify these stages to include initial formulation, formal handover, and policy implementation, and map them onto an access-exclusion framework to analyze how power is contested and who benefits. Applying the framework to three case studies from Sulawesi demonstrates that at the initial stage, processes that generate social forestry are defined by access and exclusion related to the collection and control of information. Through processes that define the formal handover stage, key actors contest rules and establish the contours of legitimacy governing social forestry. Finally, during implementation, access and exclusion occur through the management and use of resources. By analyzing access and exclusion dynamics across temporal dimensions that structure social forestry policy, we at once demystify what social forestry entails while providing a clearer picture about the boom of its expansion in Indonesia since 2014, showing how a highly anticipated policy filled with populist ideals goes bust from below.
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2019
Hajjar et al. (2019) Capital, Labor, and Gender: The Consequences of Large-Scale Land Transactions on Household Labor Allocation
Hajjar, R., Ayana, A., Rutt, R., Hinde, O., Liao, C., Keene, S., Bandiaky-Badji, S., Agrawal, A. 2019. Capital, Labor, and Gender: The Consequences of Large-Scale Land Transactions on Household Labor Allocation. Journal of Peasant Studies
ABSTRACT
Contemporary large-scale land transactions (LSLTs), also called land grabs, are historically unprecedented in their scale and pace. They have provoked robust scholarly debates, yet studies of their gender-differentiated impacts remain more rare, particularly when it comes to how changes in control over land and resources affect women’s labor, and thereby their livelihoods and well-being. Our comparative study of four LSLTs in western Ethiopia finds that the transactions led to substantial land use change, including relocation and decrease in size of smallholder parcels, loss of communally-held grazing lands, and loss of forests. These changes had far-reaching impacts on household labor allocation, the gendered division of labor, and household wellbeing. But their effects on women are both more adverse and more severe, expressed in terms of increased wage labor to make up for lost land and livestock, more time spent gathering firewood and water from increasingly distant locations, and an increased intensity of household responsibilities where male members underwent wage labor migration. These burdens led to negative psychological, corporal, and material effects on women living in and near transacted areas compared to their situation prior to transactions. This article both responds to the deficit in studies on the impacts of LSLTs on gendered livelihoods, labor relations, and wellbeing outcomes, and lays the groundwork for future research.
Agrawal et al. (2019) Are Global Land Grabs Ticking Socio-Economic Bombs or just Inefficient Investments?
Agrawal, A., Brown, D.G., and Sullivan, J.A. 2019. “Are global land grabs ticking socio-economic bombs or just inefficient investments?.” One Earth 1(2): 159-162.
ABSTRACT
Across the lower- and middle-income world, investors are acquiring rights to large swathes of land for agricultural development, threatening both existing livelihoods and the environment. The full weight of future impacts remains uncertain. But research on sustainable agriculture offers avenues to mitigate, diffuse, and avoid negative environmental and social consequences.
Cheng et al. (2019) A systematic map of evidence on the contribution of forests to poverty alleviation
Cheng, S.H., K. MacLeod S. Ahlroth, S. Onder, E. Perge, P. Shyamsundar, P. Rana, R. Garside, P. Kristjanson, M.C. McKinnon, and D.C. Miller. 2019. “A Systematic Map of Evidence on the Contribution of Forests to Poverty Alleviation.” Environmental Evidence 8: 3.
ABSTRACT
Background
Forests provide an essential resource to the livelihoods of an estimated 20% of the global population. The contribution of forest ecosystems and forest-based resources to poverty reduction is increasingly emphasized in international policy discourse and conservation and development investments. However, evidence measuring the effect of forest-based activities on poverty outcomes remains scattered and unclear. Lack of systematic understanding of forest-poverty relationships, in turn, inhibits research, policymaking, and efficient financial resource allocation.
Methods
To identify relevant studies for inclusion in this systematic map we searched six bibliographic databases, 15 organizational websites, eight systematic evidence syntheses (reviews and maps), and solicited information from key informants. Search results were screened for relevance against predefined inclusion criteria at title, abstract, and full text levels, according to a published protocol. Included articles were coded using a predefined framework. Trends in the evidence, knowledge gaps and relatively well-researched sub-topics are reported in a narrative synthesis. Occurrence and extent of existing evidence about links between interventions and outcomes are presented in a visual heatmap. Data are available through the open access Evidence for Nature and People Data Portal (http://www.natureandpeopleevidence.org).
Results
A total of 242 articles were included in the systematic map database. Included articles measured effects of 14 forest-based intervention types on 11 poverty dimensions. The majority of the evidence base (72%) examined links between productivity-enhancement strategies (e.g. forest management, agroforestry, and habitat management) and monetary income and/or social capital outcomes. Other areas with high occurrence of articles include linkages between interventions involving governance, individual rights/empowerment or linked enterprises/livelihood alternatives with impacts on monetary income from direct sale of goods. A key knowledge gap was on the impacts of investment-based interventions (i.e. enhancing produced, human, and social capitals). Another was the impacts of forest-based interventions on financial capital (savings, debt), non-monetary benefits, and health.
Conclusions
The evidence base on forest-based productive activities and poverty alleviation is growing but displays a number of biases in the distribution of articles on key linkages. Priorities for future systematic reviews and evaluations include in-depth examinations into the impacts of rights-based activities (e.g. governance, empowerment) on poverty dimensions; and productivity-enhancing activities on social capital. More comprehensive and robust evidence is needed to better understand the synergies and trade-offs among the different objectives of forest conservation and management and variation in outcomes for different social groups in different social-ecological contexts.
Erbaugh et al. (2019) Toward sustainable agriculture in the tropics
Erbaugh, J.T., Bierbaum, R., Castilleja, G., da Fonseca G.A., and Hansen, S.C.B. 2019. “Toward sustainable agriculture in the tropics.” World Development 121: 158-162.
Abstract
Wide-scale transformation promoting sustainable agricultural production in the tropics will be crucial to global sustainability and development. Although contemporary agricultural production has increased alongside international demand, it has resulted in extensive changes in land cover, often at the expense of tropical forests and other native habitats. Conservation and development professionals from civil society, private foundations, multilateral and specialized international agencies, along with academic organizations and, increasingly, the private sector, have cited the urgent need to transform tropical agricultural production to meet current and future food needs without compromising environmental, economic, and sociocultural outcomes for present and future generations. This introduction identifies the processes by which sustainable agricultural production is being implemented and scaled-up in the tropics. We propose a typology that, in broad terms, conceptualizes the implementation of sustainable agriculture. This typology depicts how contributions to this special issue advance the understanding of sustainable agriculture in the tropics. Together, these articles demonstrate that implementing the sustainable production of agriculture often occurs through hybrid governance, with actors from the public sector, private sector, and civil society working together to define and implement interventions. Evaluation of sustainable agriculture production in the tropics often relies upon transdisciplinary teams that bring data, analysis, and firsthand knowledge together. Future research would do well to focus on sustainability outcomes as a combination of environmental and human well-being indicators; the composition and outcomes of different intervention mixes; and how implementation cycles influence subsequent definition, governance, and evaluation of sustainable agriculture in the tropics.
Erbaugh (2019) Responsibilization and social forestry in Indonesia
Erbaugh, J.T. 2019. “Responsibilization and social forestry in Indonesia.” Forest Policy and Economics 109: 10201
Abstract
The current expansion of social forestry in Indonesia represents an unprecedented transfer of forest management responsibilities to user-groups across the archipelago. The Indonesian state aims to formalize co-management across 12.7 Mha of forest area to enhance community well-being and environmental as well as economic outcomes for the Indonesian public. Contemporary social forestry in Indonesia thus represents a form of natural resource responsibilization. Analyzing Indonesian social forestry as a process of responsibilization provides insight into how social forestry is performed, whether the alignment between community well-being and societal benefits is valid, and existing tensions that occur through the responsibilization of communities for forest management. Using responsibilization theory to examine social forestry policy, this research first identifies the activities that create social forestry in Indonesia and responsibilize new actors for forest management. The transfer of specific control rights to user-groups occurs through a constellation of administrative actors, bureaucratic activities, and virtual platforms. These activities reify user-groups and seek to unite community well-being objectives with environmental and economic benefits to the larger Indonesian public. However, the responsibilization of user-groups for forest management results in three important tensions. First, well-being and well-doing objectives are not always aligned and result in important trade-offs concerning community empowerment. Second, social forestry initiatives are seemingly optional, but they lack free-entry and formal channels for challenging state decisions. Third, at present there is an asymmetry between resources dedicated to approving social forestry permits versus capacity building, monitoring, and evaluating management outcomes. These three tensions provide insights for social forestry in one of the world's most significant tropical forest countries, and they point to promising future work in advancing scholarship on natural resource management and responsibilization.
Erbaugh, J.T. and Nurrochmat, D.R. (2019) Paradigm shift and business as usual through policy layering: Forest-related policy change in Indonesia (1999-2016)
Erbaugh, J.T. and Nurrochmat, D.R. 2019. “Paradigm shift and business as usual through policy layering: Forest-related policy change in Indonesia. Land use policy, 86: 136-146.
Abstract
Despite pledges by Indonesian authorities to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, Indonesian forest cover loss consistently increased over the first 18 years of Indonesian democracy. To determine if forest-related policy demonstrates a paradigm shift toward forest protection, we identify and code a set of 218 national forest-related policy documents passed between 1999 and 2016. We determine whether a paradigmatic change in forest-related policy occurred and the mechanism by which change has or has not taken place through the interpretation of policy citation networks and statistical analysis of temporal relationships between forest-related policy content and change over time. We find that there was a significant increase in the amount of Indonesian forest-related policy from 1999 to 2016 and that it was largely comprised of content that promotes forest protection and redefines the structure and funding for forest-related organizations. These content changes primarily occurred through the process of policy layering, when new policy does not amend or repeal old policy and regulation. We discuss current trends in the regulation of forest territory and flow in Indonesia and find further evidence of policy layering. Thus, although Indonesian forest-related policy demonstrates a paradigm shift, the layering process through which new policy was created allows for interpretable flexibility, which enables continued forest cover loss.
Jung et al. (2019) Evidence on the Impacts of Forestry Concessions on Wealth in Liberia
Jung, S., Liao, C., Agrawal, A., Brown, D. 2019. Evidence on the Impacts of Forestry Concessions on Wealth in Liberia. Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, 6(5): 961-1000
Abstract
The effects of resource-led development on local people’s well-being are disputed. Using four rounds of Demographic and Health Survey data in Liberia, we find that households living closer to active forest concessions achieved a higher asset-based wealth score compared to those living farther away. These wealth-improving effects did not stem, however, from the direct employment effects of concessions. Rather, evidence suggests that indirect general equilibrium effects related to demand for goods and services and increased employment in all-year and nonsubsistence jobs are the main channels. Our study underlines potential wealth-improving effects of resource-led development in poor countries, thereby contributing to the literature on well-being impacts of resource-led development on local people.
McGrath et al. (2019) Green without envy: How social capital alleviates tensions from a Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) program in Indonesia
McGrath, F., Erbaugh, J.T., Leimona, B., Amaruzaman, S., Rahadian, N., and Carrasco, L.R. 2019. “Green without envy: how social capital alleviates tensions from a Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) program in Indonesia.” Ecology and Society 23(4).
Abstract
Social capital increases participation and the success of conservation projects. However, research often overlooks social capital between program participants and nonparticipants. We examine social capital between participants and nonparticipants in villages across the Cidanau Watershed in West Java, Indonesia. Villages in this region have longstanding participation in a Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) scheme, and previous studies note they contain high levels of social capital. We find that working together, helping each other when someone is in need, and trusting your neighbors are part of the tradition and the history of these communities. Furthermore, we find that high levels of social capital persist between village members who do and do not participate in the PES scheme, despite perceived tensions and jealousy and elite capture in the PES scheme. The high levels of social capital mitigate the social impacts of the PES program. Specifically, participants report giving cash to jealous neighbors and/or providing nonparticipants with information about the PES scheme and encouraging their involvement. The informal actions that participants take to alleviate tension and jealousy mitigate the negative social impacts and perceptions of the PES. Thus, this research extends the literature on PES programs to consider participants and nonparticipants and it demonstrates how high levels of social capital can contribute to project stability by alleviating negative consequences and perceptions through informal mechanisms.
Oldekop et al. (2019) Reductions in deforestation and poverty from decentralized forest management in Nepal
Oldekop, J.A., Sims, K.R., Karna, B.K., Whittingham, M. J., and Agrawal, A. 2019. “Reductions in deforestation and poverty from decentralized forest management in Nepal.” Nature Sustainability 2(5): 421-428.
Abstract
Since the 1980’s, decentralized forest management has been promoted as a way to enhance sustainable forest use and reduce rural poverty. Rural communities manage increasing amounts of the world’s forests, yet rigorous evidence using large-N data on whether community-based forest management (CFM) can jointly reduce both deforestation and poverty remains scarce. We estimate the impacts of CFM using a large longitudinal dataset that integrates national census-based poverty measures with high-resolution forest cover change data, and near-complete information on Nepal’s >18,000 community forests. We compare changes in forest cover and poverty from 2000–2012 for subdistricts with or without CFM arrangements, but that are otherwise similar in terms of socioeconomic and biophysical baseline measures. Our results indicate that CFM has, on average, contributed to significant net reductions in both poverty and deforestation across Nepal, and that CFM increases the likelihood of win–win outcomes. We also find that the estimated reduced deforestation impacts of community forests are lower where baseline poverty levels are high, and greater where community forests are larger and have existed longer. These results indicate that greater benefits may result from longer-term investments and larger areas committed to CFM, but that community forests established in poorer areas may require additional support to minimize tradeoffs between socioeconomic and environmental outcomes.
Rana et al. (2019) Explaining Long Term Outcome Trajectories in Social Ecological Systems
Rana, P. and Miller, D.C. 2019. “Explaining Long-term Outcome Trajectories in Social–ecological Systems.” PLOS ONE 14(4): e0215230
Abstract
Improved knowledge of long-term social and environmental trends and their drivers in coupled human and natural systems is needed to guide nature and society along a more sustainable trajectory. Here we combine common property theory and experimental impact evaluation methods to develop an approach for analyzing long-term outcome trajectories in social–ecological systems (SESs). We constructed robust counterfactual scenarios for observed vegetation outcome trajectories in the Indian Himalaya using synthetic control matching. This approach enabled us to quantify the contribution of a set of biophysical and socioeconomic factors in shaping observed outcomes. Results show the relative importance of baseline vegetation condition, governance, and demographic change in predicting long-term ecological outcomes. More generally, the findings suggest the broad potential utility of our approach to analyze long-term outcome trajectories, target new policy interventions, and assess the impacts of policies on sustainability goals in SESs across the globe.
Rana, P. and Miller, D.C. (2019) Machine learning to analyze the social-ecological impacts of natural resource policy: insights from community forest management in the Indian Himalaya
Rana, P. and Miller, D.C. 2019. “Machine Learning to Analyze the Social-Ecological Impacts of Natural Resource Policy: Insights from Community Forest Management in the Indian Himalaya.” Environmental Research Letters 14: 2
Abstract
Machine learning promises to advance analysis of the social and ecological impacts of forest and other natural resource policies around the world. However, realizing this promise requires addressing a number of challenges characteristic of the forest sector. Forests are complex social-ecological systems (SESs) with myriad interactions and feedbacks potentially linked to policy impacts. This complexity makes it hard for machine learning methods to distinguish between significant causal relationships and random fluctuations due to noise. In this context, SES frameworks together with quasi-experimental impact evaluation approaches can facilitate the use of machine learning by providing guidance on the choice of variables while reducing bias in estimated effects. Here we combine an SES framework, optimal matching, and Causal Tree-based algorithms to examine causal impacts of two community forest management policies (forest cooperatives and joint state-community partnerships) on vegetation growth in the Indian Himalaya. We find that neither policy had a major impact on average, but there was important heterogeneity in effects conditional on local contextual conditions. For joint forest management, a set of biophysical and climate factors shaped differential policy impacts across the study region. By contrast, cooperative forest management performed much better in locations where existing grazing-based livelihoods were safeguarded. Stronger local institutions and secure tenure under cooperative management explain the difference in outcomes between the two policies. Despite their potential, machine learning approaches do have limitations, including absence of valid precision estimates for heterogeneity estimates and issues of estimate stability. Therefore, they should be viewed as a complement to impact evaluation approaches that, among other potential uses, can uncover key drivers of heterogeneity and generate new questions and hypotheses to improve knowledge and policy relating to forest and other natural resource governance challenges.
Wilson et al. (2019) The ‘ecosystem service scarcity path’ to forest recovery: a local forest transition in the Ecuadorian Andes
Wilson, S.J., Coomes, O.T., Dallaire, C.O. 2019. “The ‘ecosystem service scarcity path’ to forest recovery: A local forest transition in the Ecuadorian Andes.” Regional Environmental Change 19(8): 2437-2451
Abstract
Andean forests decreased in area over the past decade, and communities throughout the Andes are experiencing environmental degradation and soil fertility loss. But amid deforestation, forests returned to some Andean regions, producing local ‘forest transitions’, or net increases in forest cover. The mechanisms that drive these local transitions – often in part the actions of residents – are still little studied, but hold key information for creating successful forest and landscape restoration interventions. This paper investigates cloud forest cover dynamics in Intag, a region in northwest Andean Ecuador where people were actively reforesting by planting trees. We used remote sensing analysis of LANDSAT imagery (from 1991, 2001, and 2010) and household surveys and oral histories with residents of four communities. Results from remote sensing show that prior to reforestation projects (before 2001), deforestation rates were high (> 3%/year). But from 2001 to 2010 forest recovery surpassed deforestation – a local forest transition (net 3% forest cover). But although deforestation rates slowed precipitously (< 2%) people continued to clear forests in the highlands even as forests regrew around communities. This change in clearing rates and spatial redistribution of forest cover reflects people’s reasons for planting trees – to restore water and other key ecosystem services perceive to be ‘scarce’. The results point to a new ‘path’ by which forest transitions occur – the ecosystem service scarcity path – in which local demand for forest ecosystem services drive forest recovery.
2018
Brown, S.E., Miller, D.C., Ordonez, P.J. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on agricultural productivity, ecosystem services, and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map protocol.
Environ Evid 7, 24 (2018).
Background
Agroforestry bridges the gap that often separates agriculture and forestry by building integrated systems that address both environmental and socio-economic objectives. Agroforestry can improve the resiliency of agricultural systems and mitigate the impacts of climate change. Existing research suggests that integrating trees on farms can prevent environmental degradation, improve agricultural productivity, increase carbon sequestration, generate cleaner water, and support healthy soil and healthy ecosystems while providing stable incomes and other benefits to human welfare. Although these claims are becoming more widely accepted as the body of agroforestry research increases, systematic understanding of the evidence supporting them remains lacking for high-income countries. This systematic map will address this research need by providing a tool for identifying and visualizing the existing evidence demonstrating the impacts of agroforestry practices and interventions on agricultural productivity, ecosystem services, and human well-being. The results will be useful for informing policy decisions and future research by making the evidence easily accessible and highlighting the gaps in knowledge as well as areas with enough evidence to conduct systematic reviews.
Methods
This systematic map will identify, collect, display, and describe available evidence on the impacts of agroforestry on agricultural productivity, ecosystem services, and human well-being in high-income countries. The search strategy will cover 5 primary databases and 24 organizational websites using a pre-defined search string designed to capture studies relating agroforestry practices and interventions to outcomes in high-income countries. The searches will all be conducted in English. We will screen the identified studies for inclusion or exclusion in stages, first on title and abstract and then on full-text. We will collect data from studies included at the full-text stage to form the map and associated database. For inclusion, the study in question must assess the impacts of the deliberate promotion and/or actual integration of woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) on the same land management unit as agricultural crops and/or animals.
Erbaugh, J.T. and Oldekop, J.A. 2018. “Forest landscape restoration for livelihoods and well-being.” Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 32: 76-83.
Abstract
The scope and current investment for forest landscape restoration (FLR) is great, as are the demands put upon it for improving livelihoods and well-being. International leaders have pledged 350 Mha for FLR as part of international sustainability agendas. FLR is implemented primarily through incentives and institutions, with an emphasis on the role of active planting and land tenure reforms. Despite recent attention and a growing literature that assesses the contributions of FLR and related projects to livelihood and well-being, there is a dearth of evidence linking FLR to social, economic, or political outcomes. We present a simple framework to understand environmental and social effects of FLR interventions and we review the evidence linking FLR to livelihood and well-being outcomes. We suggest that to enhance benefits to local populations from FLR, it is necessary to better integrate socioeconomic and political data into FLR planning and implementation, to increase the role of informational implementation, and to develop monitoring and evaluation protocols to assess direct and indirect environmental and social impacts from FLR projects.
Harbi, J., Erbaugh, J.T., Sidiq, M., Haasler, B., and Nurrochmat, D.R. 2018. “Making a bridge between livelihoods and forest conservation: Lessons from non timber forest products’ utilization in South Sumatera, Indonesia.” Forest policy and economics 94: 1-10.
Abstract
Promoting forest conservation as well as the well-being of forest proximate people requires an appropriate balance of regulation, enforcement, and incentives. When regulation and enforcement are minimal, economic incentives for low-intensity and non-deleterious forest use can provide conservation and livelihood benefits. One management option for promoting low intensity and non-deleterious forest use includes the harvest and production of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). This research identifies and examines strategies to promote sustainable livelihoods in a conservation landscape. We assess Pangkalan Bulian Village, Musi Banyuasin District, South Sumatra Province using the Community Livelihood Appraisal and Product Scanning (CLAPS) method to describe potential commodities and conduct value chain and market analyses on downstream sectors. Data collection included in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and household surveys disseminated through snowball sampling. We find that rattan is a priority NTFP due to the presence of abundant raw materials, trained human resources, and potential markets. Actors involved along the value chain are collectors, local brokers, large collectors, small processors, large processors, retailers and end consumers. Profit margins earned along each link of the value chain are around 25%. Thus, we encourage rattan harvest and production as a low-intensity and non-deleterious forest use that can simultaneously benefit local livelihoods and forest conservation in a landscape where protected area rules and regulations are difficult to enforce.
Hajjar, R. and Oldekop, J. (2018) Research frontiers in community forest management
Community forest management (CFM) has been promoted worldwide as a means to conserve forests, recognize community rights, and improve local livelihoods. Here, we synthesize findings across recent CFM studies and identify two thematic and one methodological trend at the forefront of CFM scholarship. The first thematic trend is an examination of community forest enterprises as hybrid business models. The second is the increase of studies examining how REDD+ can contribute to the goals of CFM, and vice versa. The key methodological trend is the use of secondary data sets to determine outcomes of CFM policies at regional and national scales. These three trends add new perspectives to the debate on the effectiveness of CFM as a forest policy and institutional intervention.
Miller, D.C. and Nakamura, K. 2018. “Protected Areas and the Sustainable Governance of Forest Resources.” Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 32: 96-103.
Abstract
Forest protected areas (FPAs) remain a core strategy in efforts to advance global sustainability goals. Information on the effectiveness of this strategy in delivering environmental and socio-economic benefits is accumulating rapidly. Here, we review recent literature to assess current knowledge on FPA impacts, focusing on studies examining the governance dimensions of FPAs. We find that quantitative impact evaluations increasingly assess FPA networks and seek to link FPA governance to conservation and human well-being outcomes. A largely separate, qualitative literature provides detailed analysis of forest PA governance, but rarely connects it to these outcomes. Our review highlights the need for greater integration of insights and approaches from these two literatures to develop theory and evidence on sustainable governance of forest PAs over the long-term.
Oldekop, J.A., Sims, K.R., Whittingham, M.J., and Agrawal, A. 2018. “An upside to globalization, international outmigration drives reforestation in Nepal.” Global Environmental Change 52:66-74.
Abstract
Halting and reversing global forest loss is a key priority for sustainable development pathways. Multiple countries in the Global South have recently transitioned from net forest loss to net forest gain. Understanding and explaining reforestation patterns is necessary to better understand land cover dynamics and create more effective sustainability policies. We show that international migration – a key feature of globalization in the 21st century – spurs a transition to greater forest cover in Nepal. Although some aspects of globalization - agricultural commodity production and trade in particular - have been identified as contributing to deforestation, the effects of international migration are less well understood. Using data from Nepal’s national census (1.36 Million households) and from high-resolution forest cover change, we find that international outmigration is associated with substantial increases in local forest cover, even after controlling for multiple confounding factors. We find that areas with international outmigration levels above the median in 2001 were 44% more likely to experience net reforestation between 2000–2012. This effect of outmigration is mediated by changes in population density and in household agricultural activity. Effects of outmigration are higher in more agriculturally suitable areas, suggesting that migration-driven forest transitions are influenced by agricultural production systems. We provide new empirical evidence of forest transition driven by international migration and a generalizable analytical approach to the study of forest transitions using secondary global and national datasets. Our results suggest that actions to reach global sustainability, biodiversity targets, and reduced emissions can be better designed and targeted by taking into account the effects of international migration on natural resources and ecosystems.
Sanchez Badini, Hajjar, Kozak (2018) Critical success factors for small and medium forest enterprises: A review
Abstract
Small and medium forest enterprises (SMFEs) are small firms in developing countries aimed at generating income from a diverse set of forest-related activities. They result in multiple dimensions of economic, social, and cultural prosperity in forest-dependent economies, and as such they constitute an important strategy for fostering prosperity. However, SMFEs face a number of barriers and challenges, including inhospitable or incompatible regulatory environments, difficulties achieving economies of scale, and insufficient access to technical and financial capacity to overcome these issues. Through a comprehensive literature review of scholarly research published on the subject of SMFE failures and successes, our study addressed the following question: what political, economic, and socio-cultural conditions are needed for SMFEs to thrive? In answering this question, we identified and characterized twelve (12) emergent critical success factors (CSFs) of enabling business environments: macroeconomic setting, regulatory frameworks, forest law enforcement, tenure and ownership rights, management and land use planning rights, markets, natural capital, financial capital, forest management capacities, business management capacities, organizational capacities, and clustering. The integrative enabling environment framework proposed in our study can be used as a tool by practitioners seeking to promote SMFEs through programs of support or policy reforms. By considering the various CSFs that act as the foundation for successful SMFE development, the efficacy of forest-dependent livelihood interventions aiming to achieve prosperity around the world can be meaningfully enhanced.
2017
Broegaard et al. (2017) Wild food collection and nutrition under commercial agriculture expansion in agriculture-forest landscapes
Citation: Broegaard, Rikke Brandt, Laura Vang Rasmussen, Neil Dawson, Ole Mertz, Thoumthone Vongvisouk, and Kenneth Grogan. “Wild food collection and nutrition under commercial agriculture expansion in agriculture-forest landscapes.” Forest Policy and Economics (2017): n. pag. Web.
Abstract
Wild food constitutes a substantial part of household food consumption around the world, but rapid land use changes influence the availability of wild foods, which has implications for smallholders’ food and nutrient intake. With increasing commercial agriculture and biodiversity conservation efforts in forested tropical regions, many shifting cultivation systems are being intensified and their extent restricted. Studies examining the consequences of such pressures commonly overlook the diminishing role of wild food. Using a combination of collection diaries, participant observation, remote sensing, and interviews, we examined the role of agriculture-forest landscapes in the provision of wild food in rapidly transforming shifting cultivation communities in northern Laos. We found that wild food contributed less to human diets in areas where pressure on land from commercial agriculture and conservation efforts was more intense. Our results demonstrate that increasing pressure on land creates changes in the shifting cultivation landscape and people’s use thereof with negative effects on the quality of nutrition, including protein deficiency, especially in communities adjacent to core conservation areas. Our study shows the importance of adopting a more nutrition-sensitive approach to the linkages between commercial agriculture and biodiversity conservation (and the policies that promote them), wild food provisioning, and food security.
Byg et al. (2017) Trees, soils, and warthogs – Distribution of services and disservices from reforestation areas in southern Ethiopia
Citation: Byg, A., Novo, P., Dinato, M., Moges, A., Tefera, T., Balana, B., Woldeamanuel, T., Black, H. “Trees, Soils, and Warthogs – Distribution of Services and Disservices from Reforestation Areas in Southern Ethiopia.“ Forest Policy and Economics (2017): n. pag. ScienceDirect. Web.
Abstract
Conservation projects have often been criticized for creating global benefits while causing negative impacts on local livelihoods. Ecosystem services approaches have been seen as one way to change this by focusing explicitly on maintaining ecosystems for human well-being of stakeholders at various scales. However, ecosystem services approaches have often ignored trade-offs between groups of people and issues of power and do not automatically lead to better outcomes in terms of human well-being. Here we report on a study on the impacts of reforestation projects with an explicit focus on human well-being in three communities in southern Ethiopia. We investigated the distribution of services and disservices from reforestation using qualitative methods. Results showed that the services and disservices from reforestation were distributed unequally across space and wealth groups resulting in widespread dissatisfaction with existing reforestation projects despite the explicit focus on human benefits. To improve outcomes of reforestation it is necessary to acknowledge and manage disservices adaptively, include issues of power and make trade-offs transparent.
Erbaugh, J.T. and Agrawal, A. 2017. “Clarifying the landscape approach: A Letter to the Editor on “Integrated landscape approaches to managing social and environmental issues in the tropics.” Global Change Biology 23(11): 4453-4454.
Abstract:
Objectives, assumptions, and methods for landscape restoration and the landscape approach. World leaders have pledged 350 Mha for restoration using a landscape approach. The landscape approach is thus poised to become one of the most influential methods for multi-functional land management. Reed et al (2016) meaningfully advance scholarship on the landscape approach, but they incorrectly define the approach as it exists within their text. This Letter to the Editor clarifies the landscape approach as an ethic for land management, demonstrates how it relates to landscape restoration, and motivates continued theoretical development and empirical assessment of the landscape approach.
Hajjar, R. and Kozak, R. (2017) The evolution of forest producer associations and their current role in REDD+: Case studies from Quintana Roo, Mexico
Citation: Hajjar, R. and Kozak, R. “The evolution of forest producer associations and their current role in REDD+: Case studies from Quintana Roo, Mexico.” Land Use Policy 60 (2017): 373-83. Science Direct. Web.
Abstract
Forest associations (secondary-level institutions that support and represent groups of forest producer communities) play an important and understudied role in promoting community forestry in a multi-level forest governance context in many countries. This role continually evolves to meet new demands from their constituents, with associations diversifying into activities that bring new governance issues, interests, organizational logics and capacity needs. As community forestry in many countries is being integrated into REDD+ national strategies, questions arise regarding new roles for these associations. Through a case study of two forest associations in Quintana Roo, Mexico, this study traces the history and evolution of these associations as they react and adapt to a changing forest sector, uses forest stakeholders’ opinions to assess the associations’ current status and perceived importance of their involvement in the forest sector, and examines how current opinions and historical legacy have shaped their role in REDD+ in Mexico. Results show that association members and outsiders (mostly government stakeholders) hold divergent views of the utility of these organizations. Outsiders’ negative perceptions, as well as the niche that the associations are currently in, is largely determining their limited participation in REDD+ consultation and implementation to date. This is a missed opportunity to engage important allies who still hold high legitimacy in the eyes of the communities that will be the ultimate implementers of REDD+.
Ingram et al. (2017) Challenges to governing sustainable forest food: Irvingia spp. from southern Cameroon
Citation: Ingram, Verina, Marcus Ewane, Louis Njie Ndumbe, and Abdon Awono. “Challenges to governing sustainable forest food: Irvingia spp. from southern Cameroon.” Forest Policy and Economics (2017): n. pag. ScienceDirect. Web.
Abstract
Across the Congo Basin, bush mango (Irvingia spp.) nuts have been harvested from forest landscapes for consumption, sold as a foodstuff and for medicine for centuries. Data on this trade however are sparse. A value chain approach was used to gather information on stakeholders in the chain from the harvesters in three major production areas in Cameroon to traders in Cameroon, Nigeria, and Equatorial Guinea, the socio-economic values, environmental sustainability and governance. Around 5190 people work in the complex chain in Cameroon with an estimated 4109 tons harvested on average annually in the period 2007 to 2010. Bush mango incomes contribute on average to 31% of harvester’s annual incomes and dependence increases for those further from the forest. Customary rules govern access to resources. Although regulations exist, most trade is illegal, with corruption and collective action governing access to markets. The majority of nuts harvested are sustainably collected. Although 51% of the harvest is sourced from the forest, trees are also managed on cultivated land. Forest degradation and deforestation threaten the species. Policy measures such as linking stakeholders, promoting cultivation, pragmatic regulation, and supporting processer groups may make trade in this forest food more sustainable.
Jung et al. (2017) Brazil’s National Environmental Registry of Rural Properties: Implications for Livelihoods
Citation: Suhyun Jung, Laura Rasmussen, Cristy Watkins, Pete Newton, and Arun Agrawal. 2017. Brazil’s National Environmental Registry of Rural Properties: Implications for Livelihoods. Ecological Economics, 136: 53-61.
Abstract
In Brazil, the Cadastro Ambiental Rural (CAR) is currently being implemented. This policy aims to geo-reference all properties and promote monitoring of, and compliance with, natural vegetation conservation requirements. Scholarly efforts and policy attention have so far concentrated on possible environmental impacts hereof, while the attention devoted to how the CAR might affect farmers’ livelihoods has been limited. In this paper, we evaluate potential livelihood impacts of the CAR and programs that facilitate CAR registration. We do so by developing a conceptual framework and using evidence from semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders including farmers, governments, and funding agencies. We find that while the CAR and programs facilitating CAR do not have explicit livelihood impact goals, they nonetheless affect livelihoods, both positively and negatively, depending on the initial amount of natural vegetation on farmers’ properties, farmers’ access to credit and infrastructure, and changing market conditions. We argue that environmental interventions and policies need to consider potential livelihood impacts, especially if the policy intervention area has high poverty rates.
L’roe, J. and Naughton-Treves, L. (2017) Forest edges in western Uganda: From refuge for the poor to zone of investment
Citation: L’roe, Jessica, and Lisa Naughton-Treves. “Forest edges in western Uganda: From refuge for the poor to zone of investment.” Forest Policy and Economics (2017): n. pag. ScienceDirect. Web.
Abstract
Western Uganda is home to growing populations of smallholder agriculturalists, expanding commodity plantations, and protected forests. In this setting, we document a shift in who uses forest edge land and how it is used. In developing countries, protected forest edges are traditionally sites where marginalized people can subsist, but increasing land competition has the potential to change this scenario. We used longitudinal field data spanning two decades to characterize the evolution of landownership and land use neighboring Kibale National Park. The number of households has more than doubled since 1993. Land values are rising, and people buying land near the park in recent years are significantly wealthier and have more off-farm income than those who acquired land there in earlier periods. The reverse is true of renters. More people are growing inedible perennial cash crops like eucalyptus, tea, and coffee, especially those with larger amounts of land and capital. Some long-term residents are prospering, while others are squeezed onto ever smaller pieces of land and opting for precarious rental arrangements as land competition increases. We discuss the implications of this transitioning park neighborhood, both for conservation and local livelihoods.
Miller et al. (2017) Prevalence, economic contribution, and determinants of trees on farms across Sub-Saharan Africa
Citation: Miller, Daniel C., Juan Carlos Munoz-Mora, and Luc Christiaensen. “Prevalence, economic contribution, and determinants of trees on farms across Sub-Saharan Africa.” Forest Policy and Economics (2017): n. pag. Web.
Abstract
Trees on farms are often overlooked in agricultural and natural resource research and policy in Sub-Saharan Africa. This article addresses this gap using data from the Living Standards Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture in five countries: Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda. Trees on farms are widespread. On average, almost a third of rural smallholders grow trees. They account for an average of 17% of total annual gross income for tree-growing households and 6% for all rural households. Gender, land and labor endowments, and especially forest proximity and national context are key determinants of on-farm tree adoption and management. These new, national-scale insights on the prevalence, economic contribution and determinants of trees on farms in Africa lay the basis for exploring the interaction of agriculture, on-farm tree cultivation, and forestry to gain a more complete picture of the dynamics of rural livelihoods across the continent and beyond.
Miller, D.C. et al. (2017) A Crystal Ball for Forests?: Analyzing the Social-Ecological Impacts of Forest Conservation and Management over the Long Term
Citation: Miller, Daniel C., et al. “A Crystal Ball for Forests?: Analyzing the Social-Ecological Impacts of Forest Conservation and Management over the Long Term.” Environment and Society, vol. 8, no. 1, 1 Sept. 2017, pp. 40–62.
Abstract:
Citizens, governments, and donors are increasingly demanding better evidence on the effectiveness of development policies and programs. Efforts to ensure such accountability in the forest sector confront the challenge that the results may take years, even decades, to materialize, while forest-related interventions usually last only a short period. This article reviews the broad interdisciplinary literature assessing forest conservation and management impacts on biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, and poverty alleviation in developing countries. It emphasizes the importance of indicators and identifies disconnects between a rapidly growing body of research based on quasi-experimental designs and studies taking a more critical, ethnographic approach. The article also highlights a relative lack of attention on longer-term impacts in both of these areas of scholarship. We conclude by exploring research frontiers in the assessment of the impacts of forest-related interventions with long incubation periods, notably the development of predictive proxy indicators (PPIs).
Rasmussen et al. (2017) Bridging the practitioner-researcher divide: Indicators to track environmental, economic, and sociocultural sustainability of agricultural commodity production
Citation: Rasmussen, Laura Vang, Rosina Bierbaum, Johan A. Oldekop, and Arun Agrawal. “Bridging the practitioner-researcher divide: Indicators to track environmental, economic, and sociocultural sustainability of agricultural commodity production.” Global Environmental Change 42 (2017): 33-46. Science Direct. Web.
Abstract
Agricultural systems, with their links to human wellbeing, have been at the heart of sustainability debates for decades. But there is only limited agreement among scientists and stakeholders about the indicators needed to measure the sustainability of agricultural commodity production. We analyze the metrics and indicators of sustainability used in contemporary research on commodity agriculture to demonstrate that new sustainability indicators continue to be developed rapidly by researchers interested in the three principal pillars of sustainability (environmental, economic, and sociocultural). Data from interviews with main agencies and organizations investing in sustainable commodity agriculture reveals that the most commonly used indicators in the academic literature do not overlap with the central aspects of agricultural commodity production that practitioners seek to monitor. Increased dialogue between researchers and practitioners is necessary for better design and use of metrics and indicators that are cost-effective and can be used to compare sustainability outcomes across countries and commodities. We argue that finding common ground among researchers and practitioners requires coordinating ongoing data collection efforts, a greater focus on linking data collection to relevant indicators for sustainable agricultural production, and more attention to the analysis of combined datasets, rather than on the collection of new data on new indicators. By outlining twelve key aspects of agricultural commodity production that the interviewed practitioners from major agencies and organizations deem important to track, our analysis provides a strong framework that can help bridge research-practitioner divisions related to agricultural commodity production and the use of indicators to monitor and assess its sustainability. Our findings are relevant to the search for a parsimonious set of sustainability indicators at a critical time within the context of a new emerging global sustainability agenda.
Rasmussen et al. (2017) Forest contributions to livelihoods in changing agriculture-forest landscapes
Citation: Rasmussen, Laura Vang, Crsity Watkins, and Arun Agrawal. “Forest Contributions to Livelihoods in Changing Agriculture-forest Landscapes.” Forest Policy and Economics (2017): n. pag. ScienceDirect. Web.
Abstract
Forests support the livelihoods of a vast number of people through subsistence use of products, such as food, fodder, and medicinal plants; cash income obtained from sale of products; and more indirect ecological benefits such as the contributions of forests and trees to agricultural productivity. It is widely acknowledged that these contributions can be paramount to local livelihoods, yet country- and region-wide data on their linkages remains sparse and limited attention has been devoted to understanding synergies and trade-offs between, for example, subsistence and cash exchange-based contributions. And because many forest landscapes are now transitioning towards patchworks of land uses owing to agricultural expansion, conservation interventions, urbanization, and other drivers, the ways in which forests support livelihoods are in flux leaving questions about potential shifts in their importance relatively unexplored. This editorial as well as the papers collected in this special issue on Forests, food, and livelihoods, discuss the ways in which forests contribute to livelihoods, including interactions between them, and how they change as landscapes transition. By doing so, we point to the need to move beyond single-year data collection to comparable temporal points and panel data as well as the importance of accounting for a) subsistence use values, b) commercial use values, and c) ecological forest contributions in poverty alleviation policies.
Rasmussen et al. (2017) Understanding smallholders’ intended deforestation behavior in the Brazilian Cerrado following environmental registry
Citation: Laura Vang Rasmussen et al 2016 Environ. Res. Lett. 12 094001
Abstract:
Brazil’s Rural Environmental Registry (CAR) is a potentially promising avenue to slow deforestation on private properties as it facilitates the monitoring of land use. Yet limited empirical evidence exists on how the CAR affects smallholders’ behavior and recent scholarly efforts have in fact indicated that it may be doing less to protect forests than previously assumed. Based on 1177 smallholder surveys conducted in the Cerrado, we assess 1) whether the CAR might incentivize smallholders to pursue deforestation and 2) which factors are associated with smallholders’ intended deforestation behavior. We find that upon CAR registration, factors significantly associated with smallholders’ intention to deforest are: the existing percentage of native vegetation on the property, the use of agricultural loans, property owner’s age, and livestock production experience. To curb deforestation that may follow expressed intentions of smallholders, the CAR, and environmental registration programs alike, should account for existing land use by, for example, improving the system already in place for trading areas of native vegetation as this system is not widely adopted by those smallholders with more native vegetation than the legal cut-off. Also, such programs should assess the role of whether conditions related to land cover maintenance may protect against deforestation if credit access is supported especially to younger smallholders and/or livestock producers with a high percentage of native vegetation in their properties.’
Reed et al. (2017) Trees for life: The ecosystem service contribution of trees to food production and livelihoods in the tropics
Citation: Reed, James, Josh Van Vianen, Samson Foli, Jessica Clendenning, Kevin Yang, Margaret Macdonald, Gillian Petrokosfsky, Christine Padoch, and Terry Sunderland. “Trees for life: The ecosystem service contribution of trees to food production and livelihoods in the tropics.” Forest Policy and Economics (2017): n. pag. Web.
Abstract
Despite expanding interest in ecosystem service research over the past three decades, in-depth understanding of the contribution of forests and trees to food production and livelihoods remains limited. This review synthesizes the current evidence base examining the contribution of forest and trees to agricultural production and livelihoods in the tropics, where production often occurs within complex land use mosaics that are increasingly subjected to concomitant climatic and anthropogenic pressures. Using systematic review methodology we found 74 studies investigating the effect of forest or tree-based ecosystem service provision on a range of outcomes such as crop yield, biomass, soil fertility, and income. Our findings suggest that when incorporating forests and trees within an appropriate and contextualized natural resource management strategy, there is potential to maintain, and in some cases, enhance yields comparable to solely monoculture systems. Furthermore, this review has illustrated the potential of achieving net livelihood gains through integrating trees on farms, providing rural farmers with additional income sources, and greater resilience strategies to adapt to market or climatic shocks. However, we also identify significant gaps in the current knowledge that demonstrate a need for larger-scale, longer term research to better understand the contribution of forest and trees within the broader landscape and their associated impacts on livelihoods and food production systems.
Sunderland et al. (2017) A methodological approach for assessing cross-site landscape change: Understanding socio-ecological systems
Citation: Sunderland, Terry, Rabdo Abdoulaye, Ronju Ahammad, Stella Asaha, Frederic Baudron, Elizabeth Deakin, Jean-Yves Duriaux, Ian Eddy, Samson Foli, Davison Gumbo, Kaysara Khatun, Mumba Kondwani, Mrigesh Kshatriya, Laurio Leonald, Dominic Rowland, Natasha Stacey, Stephanie Tomscha, Kevin Yang, Sarah Gergel, and Josh Van Vianen. “A Methodological Approach for Assessing Cross-site Landscape Change: Understanding Socio-ecological Systems.” Forest Policy and Economics (2017): n. pag. ScienceDirect. Web.
Abstract
The expansion of agriculture has resulted in large-scale habitat loss, the fragmentation of forests, significant losses in biological diversity and negative impacts on many ecosystem services. In this paper, we highlight the Agrarian Change Project, a multi-disciplinary research initiative, that applies detailed socio-ecological methodologies in multi-functional landscapes, and assess the subsequent implications for conservation, livelihoods and food security. Specifically, the research focuses on land use impacts in locations which exhibit various combinations of agricultural modification/change across a forest transition gradient in six tropical landscapes, in Zambia, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Indonesia and Bangladesh. These methods include integrated assessments of the perceptions of ecosystem service provision, tree cover loss and gain, relative poverty, diets and agricultural patterns of change. Although numerous surveys on rural livelihoods are undertaken each year, often at great cost, many are hampered by weaknesses in methods and thus may not reflect rural realities. We attempt to highlight how integrating broader socio-ecological methods can be used to fill in those gaps and ensure such realities are indeed captured. Early findings suggest that the transition from a forested landscape to a more agrarian dominated system does not necessarily result in better livelihood outcomes and there may be unintended consequences of forest and tree cover removal. These include the loss of access to grazing land, loss of dietary diversity and the loss of ecosystem services/forest products.
Wahlen (2017) Opportunities for making the invisible visible: Towards an improved understanding of the economic contributions of NTFPs
Citation: Wahlen, Catherine Benson. “Opportunities for Making the Invisible Visible: Towards an Improved Understanding of the Economic Contributions of NTFPs.” Forest Policy and Economics (2017): n. pag. ScienceDirect. Web.
Abstract
Forests around the world remain under-valued because governments, policymakers, and other key actors do not consider the global or national contributions of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) when estimating the value of forests. Where available, existing estimates suggest the non-cash benefits of forests are substantial, in many cases three to ten times higher than those for which systematic national and global data are collected. Part of this under-valuation stems from a general focus by governments on forest resources that are commercially valued as well as from government failure to include estimates of NTFP contributions in their national accounts. Beyond these reasons, however, lay methodological challenges in measurement techniques and comparability across studies, countries, and regions, both of which result in limited data on NTFPs. This article reviews NTFP studies at the global and national levels to provide estimates of the non-cash contributions of NTFPs and to shed light on challenges related to the absence of systematic, reliable data on the economic contributions of forests. The article then considers the implications for forest governance, management, and policy, arguing that the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) offer an opportunity to increase attention on the non-cash contributions of forests and turn this invisible contribution into a visible one.
Wilson et al. (2017) Forest ecosystem-service transitions: the ecological dimensions of the forest transition
Wilson, S. J., J. Schelhas, R. Grau, A. S. Nanni, and S. Sloan. 2017. Forest ecosystem-service transitions: the ecological dimensions of the forest transition. Ecology and Society 22(4):38.
https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09615-220438
Abstract
New forests are expanding around the world. In many regions, regrowth rates are surpassing deforestation rates, resulting in “forest transitions,” or net gains in forest cover. Typically measured only in terms of aggregate“’forest cover” change, these new forests are ecologically distinct from each other and from those originally cleared. We ask, what are the ecological attributes, goods, and services we might expect from different pathways of forest recovery? To address this question, we proposed a typology of forest transitions that reflects both their social drivers and ecological outcomes: tree plantation, spontaneous regeneration, and agroforestry transitions. Using case studies, we illustrate how the ecological outcomes of each transition type differ and change over time. We mapped the global distribution of forest-transition types to identify global epicenters of each, and found that spontaneous transitions are most common globally, especially in Latin America; agroforestry transitions predominate in Europe and Central America; and plantation transitions occur in parts of Europe and Asia. We proposed a conceptual framework to understand and compare the ecological services arising from different types of forest transitions over time: forest ecosystem-service transition curves. This framework illustrates that carbon sequestration tends to be comparatively lower in agroforestry transitions, and biodiversity recovery is lower in industrial plantations. Spontaneously regenerating forests tend to have relatively high biodiversity and biomass but provide fewer provisioning and economically valuable services. This framework captures the dynamism that we observe in forest transitions, thus illustrating that different social drivers produce different types of ecosystem-service transitions, and that as secondary forests grow, these services will change over time at rates that differ among transition types. Ultimately, this framework can guide future research, describe actual and potential changes in ecosystem services associated with different types of transitions, and promote management plans that incorporate forest cover changes with the services and benefits they provide.
2016
Bakkegaard et al. (2016) Measuring forest and wild product contributions to household welfare: Testing a scalable household survey instrument in Indonesia
Citation: Bakkegaard, Riyong Kim, Nicholas J. Hogarth, Indah Waty Bong, Aske S. Bosselmann, and Sven Wunder. “Measuring forest and wild product contributions to household welfare: Testing a scalable household survey instrument in Indonesia.” Forest Policy and Economics (2016): n. pag. Web.
Abstract
Systematic comparisons of human dependence on forests and environmental resources have been challenging, as a result of heterogeneous methodologies. Specialized Forestry Modules have been developed, with the goal of filling current information gaps concerning the economic importance of forest and wild products in household welfare and rural livelihoods. Results from a pilot assessment of the Forestry Modules in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, are presented, showing that the Forestry Modules perform well in extracting the expected information: mean per capita forest and wild product income shifts according to the geographical “forest gradient”. Significantly, in the forest-rich upstream village, mean forest and wild product income and mean forest-related wage and business incomes exceeds current mean agricultural income statistics for West Kalimantan and mean non-agricultural rural household incomes in the lowest bracket. Consumption of forest products and importance as a coping strategy was higher in the most upstream village, where sale of forest products in times of shock was more marked in the most downstream village (where forest coping strategies were also least important). The Forestry Modules’ detailed and systematic approach can help ensure that contributions of forest and wild products are not underestimated in national figures.
Brandt et al. (2016) Deforestation and timber production in Congo after implementation of sustainable forest management policies
Citation: Brandt, Jodi, Christoph Nolte, Arun Agrawal. 2016. Deforestation and timber production in Congo after implementation of sustainable forest management policies. Land Use Policy 52: 15-22.
Abstract
Over 400 million hectares of tropical forests are managed for timber production, comprising more than half of the remaining global permanent tropical forest estate. A growing proportion of tropical production forests are managed under Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) principles. The objective of SFM is to achieve multiple benefits, including forest protection, biodiversity conservation and income enhancement. However, the outcomes resulting from the implementation of SFM in tropical forest ecosystems have seldom been examined rigorously. In this paper, we present a methodological approach to assess broad-scale impacts of SFM policy in tropical forest ecosystems. As a case study, we investigated deforestation and timber production in logging concessions in the Republic of Congo after the implementation of its SFM-based forestry law in 2000. Compliance with the forestry law was incomplete, allowing a unique opportunity to compare deforestation and legal timber production outcomes in concessions that implemented SFM-based policy compared to those that did not. Quasi-experimental matching analysis indicated that deforestation in matched parcels in compliant concessions was up to 2-times higher than matched parcels in non-compliant concessions, equivalent to 67 km2 of forest loss for the period 2005–2010. Annual deforestation data demonstrated that deforestation was stable or increased in all six concessions following the respective date of compliance in each concession. Legal timber production increased (by 5%, from 0.18 to 0.19 CBM/ha/yr) and became more stable, in compliant compared to non-compliant concessions. Our results suggest that the presence of SFM in a concession does not immediately lead to less deforestation. Rather, SFM policy may be associated with higher deforestation, because SFM is also associated with higher legal timber production, foreign capital, and international timber demand. Our findings measure short-term associations between SFM and deforestation in the Congo, and underscore the need for empirical evaluation of long-term impacts of SFM in tropical forest ecosystems worldwide.
Chazdon et al. (2016) When is a forest a forest? Forest concepts and definitions in the era of forest and landscape restoration
Citation: Chazdon, Robin L., Pedro H.S. Brancalion, Lars Laestadius, Aoife Bennett-Curry, Kathleen Buckingham, Chetan Kumar, Julian Moll-Rocek, Ima Celia Guimeraes Vieira, and Sarah Jane Wilson. 2016. When is a forest A forest? Forest concepts And definitions in the era of forest And landscape restoration. Ambio doi: 10.1007/s13280-016-0772-y
Abstract
We present a historical overview of forest concepts and definitions, linking these changes with distinct perspectives and management objectives. Policies dealing with a broad range of forest issues are often based on definitions created for the purpose of assessing global forest stocks, which do not distinguish between natural and planted forests or reforests, and which have not proved useful in assessing national and global rates of forest regrowth and restoration. Implementing and monitoring forest and landscape restoration requires additional approaches to defining and assessing forests that reveal the qualities and trajectories of forest patches in a spatially and temporally dynamic landscape matrix. New technologies and participatory assessment of forest states and trajectories offer the potential to operationalize such definitions. Purpose-built and contextualized definitions are needed to support policies that successfully protect, sustain, and regrow forests at national and global scales. We provide a framework to illustrate how different management objectives drive the relative importance of different aspects of forest state, dynamics, and landscape context.
Dave et al. (2016) Forest ecosystem services derived by smallholder farmers in northwestern Madagascar: Storm hazard mitigation and participation in forest management
Citation: Dave, Radhika, Emma L. Tompkins, and Kate Schreckenberg. “Forest ecosystem services derived by smallholder farmers in northwestern Madagascar: Storm hazard mitigation and participation in forest management.” Forest Policy and Economics (2016): n. pag. Web.
Abstract
Tropical dry deciduous forests provide numerous ecosystem services yet their contribution to agricultural production remains underexplored. We address this research gap by quantifying the broader suite of ecosystem services that support small holder farmers and identifying farmers’ knowledge of storm hazard reduction benefits provided by forest fragments in Madagascar. We survey 240 households and interview eight key informants to identify household and community responses in two communities with contrasting forest cover trajectories. Using multivariate statistics, results show a heavy dependence on forests for food and raw materials and a majority of the respondents holding a positive view of hazard mitigation services provided by forest fragments. Education levels, earning an income from forest based tourism and honey production are the only predictors of participation in forest management. Positive view of the hazard reduction benefits derived from forests could be due to external influences or personal observations, and together with barriers to participation in forest management need to be further investigated to better link forest management to reduced hazards risks. These findings are significant for forest management policy, as local knowledge and rationale for decisions are instrumental in the success of decentralized forest management and maintenance of vital forest benefits to farmers.
Egelyng et al. (2016) Origin products from African forests: A Kenyan pathway to prosperity and green inclusive growth?
Citation: Egelyng, Henrik, Aske S. Bosselmann, Mary Warui, Fredah Maina, John Mburu, and Amos Gyau. “Origin Products from African Forests: A Kenyan Pathway to Prosperity and Green Inclusive Growth?” Forest Policy and Economics (2016): n. pag. ScienceDirect. Web.
Abstract
Many tropical countries have potential for adding market value to unique forest origin products similarly to how EU gain billions of Euro’s annually from registering agricultural origin products, with Protected Denomination of Origin or Protected Geographical Indication. Following analysis of the renaissance for the global Geographical Indication (GI) regime, this article provides case-studies from Kenya – on Mwingi Honey, Kakamega Silk and institutional conditions under which producers may incorporate territory specific cultural, environmental, and social qualities of their unique products. We investigate prospects for Kenyan producers to create and capture additional monetary value for their forest related origin products, allowing smallholders to build livelihood, while stewarding natural environments. The origin products are investigated for their potential for protection with a GI, within five different dimensions of and links with the social and natural world. Our study shows that Mwingi Honey and Kakamega Silk have potential for registration under a GI regime based mainly on close links between local environment, flora and product quality, and product specificity. The institutional environment presents major challenges for the development of GI products and markets, exemplified by the Kenyan GI bill which is not yet enacted after almost a decade in the making.
Erbaugh (2016) Book Review: The challenges behind Indonesia’s agricultural matrix
Citation: Erbaugh, James. “Book Review: The Challenges behind Indonesia’s Agricultural Matrix.” Jakarta Post, 26 July 2016. Web.
Book review on the National University of Singapore Press’ two new titles: The Oil Palm Complex: Smallholders, Agribusiness and the State in Indonesia and Malaysia and Catastrophe and Regeneration in Indonesia’s Peatlands: Ecology, Economy, and Society offers an in-depth case study of peatland ecosystems, regeneration, and biomass production.
Erbaugh et al. (2016) Regulation, formalization, and smallholder timber production in northern Central Java
Citation: Erbaugh, J., Nurrochmat, D., and Purnomo, H. (2016). Regulation, formalization, and smallholder timber production in northern Central Java. Agroforestry Systems. DOI: 10.1007/s10457-016-0037-6
Abstract
Forest Law Enforcement, Governance, and Trade agreements between the EU and countries that grow tropical timber aim to complement, alter, or generate new regulatory mechanisms that ensure the legality of timber products. These regulatory changes affect pre-existing policies and practices within timber production networks. The Indonesian-EU Voluntary Partnership Agreement was signed in 2013, and legality verification is scheduled to become mandatory for all smallholders by the end of 2017. Using grower surveys conducted in the Jepara regency of Central Java (n = 204), we generate information on who Jepara smallholders are, what timber species they are growing, and how programs that provide free and discounted seedlings contribute to STP. We use these data to understand how STP operates and how Sistem Verifikasi Legalitas Kayu (SVLK), the Indonesian method for timber legality verification, will affect STP networks and producers. We find that resource provision and oversight of source documentation increase formalization within STP. Our discussion details four policy-relevant insights for promoting STP amid continued formalization.
Hajjar and Molnar (2016) Decentralization and community-based approaches
Citation: Hajjar, R and A Molnar. 2016 Decentralization and Community-based Approaches. In Panwar, R et al. (eds). Forests, business and sustainability. Earthscan, London.
Hajjar et al. (2016) Promoting small and medium forest enterprises in the context of REDD+: A multi-country analysis of enabling environments
Citation: Hajjar, Reem, Olivia Sanchez Badini, and Robert A Kozak. 2016. “Promoting Small and Medium Forest Enterprises in National REDD + Strategies: A Global Analysis of Enabling Environments.” Climate Policy 3062 (June).
Abstract
REDD+ has emerged as a key component of climate mitigation strategies in developing countries. Small and medium forest enterprises (SMFEs) can contribute towards the achievement of REDD+ goals through conservation, sustainable use of forests, and enhancement of carbon stocks, while simultaneously improving local livelihoods and contributing to local economies. Thus, the promotion of SMFEs can be thought of as an important component of a nation’s REDD+ strategy. This study assesses the degree to which enabling environments for SMFEs are being promoted in countries that are in the midst of becoming REDD-ready. It uses an analytical framework, developed from a literature review on small-scale forestry enabling environments, to conduct a qualitative content analysis of REDD-readiness documents that 41 countries have submitted to multilateral funders and assess the degree to which enabling environments for smallscale forest enterprises are being promoted under the auspices of REDD+. Despite a general recognition of the importance of SMFEs in REDD+ schemes, most countries failed to propose strategies and actions for improving enabling environments, particularly with respect to internal business capacities. Priority areas for investment of REDD-readiness funds that will deliver returns for both carbon and livelihoods through SMFEs are identified and enumerated.
Hajjar et al. (2016) The data not collected on community forestry
Citation: Hajjar, Reem, Johan A. Oldekop, Peter Cronkleton, Emily Etue, Peter Newton, Aaron J M Russel, Januarti Sinarra Tjajadi, Wen Zhou, and Arun Agrawal. 2016. “The Data Not Collected on Community Forestry.” Conservation Biology 30 (6): 1357–62.
Conservation and development practitioners increasingly promote community forestry as a way to conserve ecosystem services, consolidate resource rights, and reduce poverty. However, outcomes of community forestry have been mixed, with many initiatives failing to achieve intended objectives. There is a rich literature on community forestry institutional arrangements, but fewer efforts to examine the role of socioeconomic, market, and biophysical factors in shaping both land cover change dynamics, and individual and collective livelihood decisions. We
systematically reviewed the peer-reviewed literature on community forestry to examine and quantify existing knowledge gaps in the community forestry literature. In examining 697 cases of community forest management, extracted from 267 peer-reviewed publications, we find three key trends that limit our understanding of community forestry. First, there are substantial data gaps linking population dynamics, market forces, and biophysical characteristics to both environmental and livelihood outcomes. Second, most studies focus on environmental outcomes, and
the majority of studies that do assess socio-economic outcomes rely on qualitative data, making it difficult to make comparisons across cases. Finally, we find a heavy bias towards studies on South Asian forests, indicating that the literature on community forestry might not be representative of decentralization policies and community forest management globally.
Hicks et al. (2016) Engage key social concepts for sustainability
Citation: Hicks, Christina, A Levine, A Agrawal, X Basurto, SJ Breslow, C Carothers, S Charnley, S Coulthard, N Dolsak, J Donatuto, C Garcia-Quijano, MB Mascia, K Norman, MR Poe, T Satterfield, KS Martin, PS Levin. 2016. Engage key social concepts for sustainability. Science 352: 38-40
Abstract
With humans altering climate processes, biogeochemical cycles, and ecosystem functions (1), governments and societies confront the challenge of shaping a sustainable future for people and nature. Policies and practices to address these challenges must draw on social sciences, along with natural sciences and engineering (2). Although various social science approaches can enable and assess progress toward sustainability, debate about such concrete engagement is outpacing actual use. To catalyze uptake, we identify seven key social concepts that are largely absent from many efforts to pursue sustainability goals. We present existing and emerging well-tested indicators and propose priority areas for conceptual and methodological development.
Ingalls et al. (2016) Missing the forest for the trees? Navigating the trade-offs between mitigation and adaptation under REDD
Citation: Ingalls, Micah L. and Dwyer, Michael B., 2016. Missing the forest for the trees? Navigating the trade-offs between mitigation and adaptation under REDD. Climatic Change, 136(2), pp.353-366.
Abstract
Forested landscapes play a critical role in mitigating climate change by sequestering carbon while at the same time fostering adaption by supporting ecosystem services, the recognition of which is reflected in the recent Paris Agreement on climate change. It has been suggested, therefore, that the conservation of forested landscapes may provide a potential win-win in the fight against global environmental change. Despite the potential synergies between mitigation and adaptation efforts, recent studies have also raised concerns about possible trade-offs. Our research employs the analytic lens of social-ecological resilience to explore the intersection between mitigation and adaptation in the context of a Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) project in Lao PDR. Drawing on ecosystem analyses, group discussions and interviews with policy makers, practitioners and resource-dependent communities, we identify three potential limitations of REDD for achieving climate synergies. First, by disrupting existing disturbance regimes, REDD interventions run the risk of reducing diversity and structural heterogeneity and thus may undermine functional redundancy core to resilience. Second, REDD-as-practiced has tended to select local, rather than structural, drivers of deforestation, focusing disproportionately on curtailing local livelihood practices, reducing local resources for adaptation. Third, REDD risks redirecting ecosystem service benefits away from local communities toward state agencies, incentivizing recentralization and limiting the scope of local governance. We argue that REDD’s potential for delivering synergies between climate change mitigation and adaptation in Laos is currently attenuated by structural factors rooted in development policies and broader political-economic trajectories in ways that may not be legible to, or adequately addressed by, current programmes and policy.
Liao et al. (2016) Insufficient research on land grabbing
Citation: Liao, Chuan, Suhyun Jung, Arun Agrawal, and Daniel G. Brown. “Insufcient Research on Land Grabbing.” Science 353.6295 (2016): 131-32. Web.
FLARE researchers have published an article in the latest issue of Science on land grabbing.
Newton et al. (2016) Carbon, biodiversity, and livelihoods in forest commons: synergies, trade-offs, and implications for REDD+
Citation: Newton, Peter, Johan A. Oldekop, Gernot Brodnig, Birendra K. Karna, and Arun Agrawal. 2016. Carbon, Biodiversity, and Livelihoods in Forest Commons: Synergies, Trade-offs, and Implications for REDD+. Environmental Research Letters doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/4/044017
Abstract
Understanding the relationships and tradeoffs among management outcomes in forest commons has assumed new weight in the context of parallels between the objectives of community forest management and those of reduced emissions for deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) programs to reduce carbon emissions while supporting local livelihoods. We examine the association between biophysical, demographic, institutional and socio-economic variables and three distinct forest management outcomes of interest to both community forestry and REDD+ advocates—carbon storage, biodiversity conservation, and livelihood benefits—in 56 forest commons in Nepal. REDD+ programs aim foremost to increase forest carbon storage and sequestration, but also seek to improve forest biodiversity, and to contribute to local livelihood benefits. The success of REDD+ programs can therefore be defined by improvements in one or more of these dimensions, while satisfying the principle of ‘do no harm’ in the others. We find that each outcome is associated with a different set of independent variables. This suggests that there is a need for policy-makers to clearly define their desired outcomes and to target their interventions accordingly. Our research points to the complex ways in which different factors relate to forest outcomes and has implications for the large number of cases where REDD+ projects are being implemented in the context of community forestry.
Newton et al. (2016) Overcoming barriers to low carbon agriculture and forest restoration in Brazil: The Rural Sustentavel Project
Citation: Newton, Peter, Angelo Eduardo Angel Gomez, Suhyun Jung, Timothy Kelly, Thiago De Aragao Mendes, Laura Vang Rasmussen, Julio Cesar Dos Reis, Renato De Aragao Ribeiro Rodrigues, Richard Tipper, Dan Van Der Horst, and Cristy Watkins. “Overcoming barriers to low carbon agriculture and forest restoration in Brazil: The Rural Sustentavel Project.” World Development Perspectives 4 (2016): 5-7. ScienceDirect. Web.
Abstract
The Rural Sustentável project aims to decrease greenhouse gas emissions, reduce poverty, and promote sustainable rural development in the Brazilian Amazon and Atlantic Forest biomes: by restoring deforested and degraded land, and by facilitating and promoting the uptake of low carbon agricultural technologies. The project offers farmers a) access to information, through demonstration units and field days; b) access to technical assistance, through in-person and online training and capacity-building; c) access to rural credit, through collaborative farmer-technician partnerships, and d) financial incentives, in the form of results based financing to successful farmer-technician teams. The project is still in its implementation stage, but the innovative design and theory of change of this project offer insights into possible mechanisms for promoting forest restoration on private lands in the tropics.
Newton et al. (2016) Who are forest-dependent people? A taxonomy to aid livelihood and land use decision-making in forested regions
Citation: Newton, Peter, Daniel C. Miller, Mugabi Augustine Ateenyi Byenkya, and Arun Agrawal. “Who Are Forest-dependent People? A Taxonomy to Aid Livelihood and Land Use Decision-making in Forested Regions.” Land Use Policy 57 (2016): 388-95.
Abstract
The relationship between forests and people is of substantial interest to peoples and agencies that govern and use them, private sector actors that seek to manage and profit from them, NGOs who support and implement conservation and development projects, and researchers who study these relationships and others. The term ‘forest-dependent people’ is widely used to describe human populations that gain some form of benefits from forests. But despite its long history and widespread use, there are substantial divergences in who the term refers to, what each of its constituent words mean, and how many forest- dependent people there are globally. This paper identifies the range of existing uses and definitions of the term ‘forest-dependent people’, and summarizes them in a systematic taxonomy. Our taxonomy exposes the dimensions that characterize the relationships between people and forests, and leads to two conclusions: First, an absolute, universally accepted definition of the term is untenable. Rather, users of the term ‘forest-dependent people’ need to comprehensively define their population of interest with reference to the context and purpose of their forest- and people-related objectives. The framework and language of our taxonomy aims to aid such efforts. Second, conservation and development program funders, designers, and implementers must reconsider whether forest dependence is an appropriate target for policy objectives.
Nurrochmat et al. (2016) Contesting national and international forest regimes: Case of timber legality certification for community forests in Central Java, Indonesia
Citation: Nurrochmat, D. R., Dharmawan, A. H., Obidzinski, K., Dermawan, A., & Erbaugh, J. (2016). Contesting national and international forest regimes: Case of timber legality certification for community forests in Central Java, Indonesia. Forest Policy and Economics.
Abstract
The Government of Indonesia (GoI) and the European Union (EU) have signed a Voluntary Partnership Agreement on Forest Law Enforcement Governance and Trade (FLEGT-VPA), which aims to prevent illegal timber products from entering the EU. This agreement recognizes a certification for timber products exported from Indonesia based on FLEGT-VPA standards and implemented through the timber legality verification system, Sistem Verifikasi Legalitas Kayu (SVLK). While the implementation of SVLK complies with the FLEGT-VPA, it has not dissolved pre-existing national systems for forest management and timber trade. Implementing SVLK standards amid multiple forest regimes causes redundancy of administrative procedures in forest management and timber trade in Indonesia. This redundancy, in turn, leads to decrease in cost efficiency, weak legitimation, and low effectiveness of the system, especially in community forests.
Oldekop et al. (2016) A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas
Citation: Oldekop JA, Holmes G, Harris WE, Evans KL. 2016. A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas. Conservation Biology 30(1): 133-141.
Abstract
Protected areas (PAs) are a key strategy for protecting biological resources, but they vary considerably in their effectiveness and are frequently reported as having negative impacts on local people. This has contributed to a divisive and unresolved debate concerning the compatibility of environmental and socioeconomic development goals. Elucidating the relationship between positive and negative social impacts and conservation outcomes of PAs is key for the development of more effective and socially just conservation. We conducted a global meta-analysis on 165 PAs using data from 171 published studies. We assessed how PAs affect the well-being of local people, the factors associated with these impacts, and crucially the relationship between PAs’ conservation and socioeconomic outcomes. Protected areas associated with positive socioeconomic outcomes were more likely to report positive conservation outcomes. Positive conservation and socioeconomic outcomes were more likely to occur when PAs adopted comanagement regimes, empowered local people, reduced economic inequalities, and maintained cultural and livelihood benefits. Whereas the strictest regimes of PA management attempted to exclude anthropogenic influences to achieve biological conservation objectives, PAs that explicitly integrated local people as stakeholders tended to be more effective at achieving joint biological conservation and socioeconomic development outcomes. Strict protection may be needed in some circumstances, yet our results demonstrate that conservation and development objectives can be synergistic and highlight management strategies that increase the probability of maximizing both conservation performance and development outcomes of PAs.
Oldekop, J.A., Fontana, L.B., Grugel, J., Roughton, N., Adu-Ampong, E.A., Bird, G.K., Dorgan, A., Vera Espinoza, M.A., Wallin, S., Hammett, D., Agbarakwe, E., Agrawal, A., et al. 2016. “100 key research questions for the post-2015 development agenda.” Development Policy Review 34(1): 55-82.
Abstract
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) herald a new phase for international development. This article presents the results of a consultative exercise to collaboratively identify 100 research questions of critical importance for the post-2015 international development agenda. The final shortlist is grouped into nine thematic areas and was selected by 21 representatives of international and non-governmental organisations and consultancies, and 14 academics with diverse disciplinary expertise from an initial pool of 704 questions submitted by 110 organisations based in 34 countries. The shortlist includes questions addressing long-standing problems, new challenges and broader issues related to development policies, practices and institutions. Collectively, these questions are relevant for future development-related research priorities of governmental and non-governmental organisations worldwide and could act as focal points for transdisciplinary research collaborations.
Rasmussen et al. (2016) Adaptation by stealth: Climate information use in the Great Lakes region across scales
Citation: Rasmussen, Laura Vang, Christine J. Kirchhoff, and Maria Carmen Lemos. “Adaptation by stealth: Climate information use in the Great Lakes region across scales.” Climatic Change (2016): 1-15. Springer Link. Web.
Abstract
While there has been considerable focus on understanding barriers to climate information use associated with the character of climate knowledge, individuals’ negative perception of its usability and constraints of decision-contexts, less attention has been paid to understanding how different scales of decision-making influence information use. In this study, we explore how water and resource managers’ scales of decision-making and scope of decision responsibilities influence climate information use in two Great Lakes watersheds. We find that despite availability of tailored climate information, actual use of information remains low. Reasons include (a) lack of willingness to place climate on agendas because local managers perceive climate change as politically risky, (b) lack of formal mandate or authority at the city and county scale to translate climate information into on-the-ground action, (c) problems with the information itself, and (d) perceived lack of demand for climate information by those managers who have the mandate and authority to use (or help others use) climate information. Our findings suggest that (1) scientists and information brokers should produce information that meets a range of decision needs and reserve intensive tailoring efforts for decision makers who have willingness and authority to use climate information; (2) without support from higher levels of decision-making (e.g., state), it is unlikely that climate information use will accelerate significantly; and (3) the trend towards characterizing climate specific actions within a broader concept of sustainability practices, or “adaptation by stealth,” should be supported as a component of the climate adaptation repertoire.
Wilson et al. (2016) Acceleration and novelty: community restoration speeds recovery and transforms species composition in Andean cloud forest
Citation: Wilson, Sarah Jane, and Jeanine M. Rhemtulla. 2016. Acceleration and novelty: community restoration speeds recovery and transforms species composition in Andean cloud forest. Ecological Applications 26(1): 203-218.
Abstract
Community-based tropical forest restoration projects, often promoted as a win-win solution for local communities and the environment, have increased dramatically in number in the past decade. Many such projects are underway in Andean cloud forests, which, given their extremely high biodiversity and history of extensive clearing, are understudied. This study investigates the efficacy of community-based tree-planting projects to accelerate cloud forest recovery, as compared to unassisted natural regeneration. This study takes place in northwest Andean Ecuador, where the majority of the original, highly diverse cloud forests have been cleared, in five communities that initiated tree-planting projects to restore forests in 2003. In 2011, we identified tree species along transects in planted forests (n = 5), naturally regenerating forests (n = 5), and primary forests (n = 5). We also surveyed 120 households about their restoration methods, tree preferences, and forest uses. We found that tree diversity was higher in planted than in unplanted secondary forest, but both were less diverse than primary forests. Ordination analysis showed that all three forests had distinct species compositions, although planted forests shared more species with primary forests than did unplanted forests. Planted forests also contained more animal-dispersed species in both the planted canopy and in the unplanted, regenerating understory than unplanted forests, and contained the highest proportion of species with use value for local people. While restoring forest increased biodiversity and accelerated forest recovery, restored forests may also represent novel ecosystems that are distinct from the region’s previous ecosystems and, given their usefulness to people, are likely to be more common in the future.
2015
Agrawal and Lemos (2015) Adaptive development
Citation: Arun Agrawal and Maria Lemos. 2015. Adaptive development. Nature Climate Change 5:185-187
Abstract
Adaptive development mitigates climate change risks without negatively influencing the well-being of human subjects and ecosystems by using incentives, institutions, and information-based policy interventions to address different components of climate risks.
Agrawal et al. (2015) Motivational crowding in sustainable development interventions: assessing the effects of multiple treatments
Citation: Arun Agrawal, Elisabeth Gerber, Ashwini Chhatre. 2015. Motivational crowding in sustainable development interventions: assessing the effects of multiple treatments. American Political Science Review 109: 470-87.
Abstract
We used a quasi-experimental research design to study the extent of motivational crowding in a recent sustainable development intervention in northern India. The project provided participants with both private and communal material benefits to enhance their incomes, and environmental and social information to inculcate pro-environmental motivations. We compared changes in reported motivations of participants for conserving forest resources, before and after project implementation, with changes in reported motivations of matched nonparticipants. We found that villagers who received private economic benefits were more likely to change from an environmental to an economic motivation for forest protection, whereas those who engaged in communal activities related to the project were less likely to change from an environmental to an economic motivation. These results, which indicate a substantial but conditional degree of motivational crowding, clarify the relationships between institutional change, incentives, and motivations and have important implications for the design of sustainable development interventions.
Andersson et al. (2015) Governing resources: The socioeconomic impact of forestry expansion in Chile
Citation: Andersson, K., D. Lawrence, J. C. Zavaleta, and Manuel R. Guariguata. 2015. Governing Resources: The socioeconomic impact of forestry expansion in Chile. Environmental Management 57(1): 123-136.
Abstract
Tree plantations play a controversial role in many nations’ efforts to balance goals for economic development, ecological conservation, and social justice. This paper seeks to contribute to this debate by analyzing the socioeconomic impact of such plantations. We focus our study on Chile, a country that has experienced extraordinary growth of industrial tree plantations. Our analysis draws on a unique dataset with longitudinal observations collected in 180 municipal territories during 2001–2011. Employing panel data regression techniques, we find that growth in plantation area is associated with higher than average rates of poverty during this period.
Hajjar (2015) Advancing small-scale forestry under FLEGT and REDD in Ghana
Citation: Hajjar, R. 2015. Advancing small-scale forestry under FLEGT and REDD in Ghana. Forest Policy and Economics 58: 12-20
Abstract
In Ghana, small and medium-scale forest enterprises (SMFEs) provide income and livelihoods for three million people and supply a growing domestic timber demand. However, most SMFEs operate in the informal sector, and thus have become a target for current forest sector reforms stemming from Ghana’s involvement in two international mechanisms: FLEGT and REDD. This paper examines how SMFEs are being incorporated into FLEGT and REDD plans, and asks whether reforms under these mechanisms will serve to advance SMFEs in the country while tackling illegal and unsustainable forest activities. The analysis shows that FLEGT-related reforms will target governance issues downstream in the domestic lumber supply chain, without tackling a root cause of illegalities and challenges within the SMFE sector: tree tenure. In contrast, REDD planning includes a strong focus on the illusive tenure issue, but to date has placed little emphasis on SMFE promotion. The paper concludes that reforms associated with both mechanisms may work complementarily to advance a legal and sustainable SMFE sector, but only if local communities are incentivized to manage forest and tree resources through clarification of land and tree tenure. Reasons for why tenure reform has been such a sticking point are discussed.
Hajjar and Kozak (2015) Exploring public perceptions of forest adaptation strategies in Western Canada: Implications for policy-makers
Citation: Hajjar, R, RA Kozak. 2015. Exploring public perceptions of forest adaptation strategies in Western Canada: Implications for policy-makers. Forest Policy and Economics 61(2015): 59-69.
Abstract
Various reforestation strategies that could potentially help forests adapt to a changing climate are currently being debated. We sought to gauge the public’s acceptance levels of different reforestation strategies, and explore which factors seem to be associated with people’s willingness to accept different forms of human and technological intervention in forest management. To do so, a public survey was administered in British Columbia and Alberta, Canada to assess acceptance of different forest adaptation strategies that could be employed to adapt to a changing climate, and explore variables identified from the literature as potentially affecting public decisions on biotechnology and assisted migration. A logistic regression was used to determine the degree to which variables identified in the literature are associated with levels of acceptance of different forest management strategies. What emerged was an explanatory model that can be used as a starting point to further engage the public in a discussion over appropriate and acceptable technologies and policies to help forests adapt to a changing climate.
Mapfumo et al. (2015) Pathways to transformational change in the face of climate impacts: An analytical framework
Citation: Mapfumo, Paul, M. Onyango, SK Jonkponou, EH El Mzouri…Arun Agrawal (12 authors). 2015. Pathways to transformational change in the face of climate impacts: an analytical framework. Climate and Development 7: 1-13.
Abstract
Unprecedented impacts of climate change and climate variability in the twenty-first century are likely to require transformational social, organizational and human responses. Yet, little existing empirical work examines how decision-makers can facilitate such responses. This paper suggests that in order to assess whether responses to climate risks and threats are transformational, it is necessary to move away from a focus only on outcomes and scale and towards the multiple dimensions of social responses and the processes through which transformational changes are realized. In so doing, the paper seeks to move the discussion on transformational change towards the processes and sustainability of adaptation interventions, and the changes they trigger. Drawing on the literature on transformational change in organizational theory and social–ecological systems, the paper first develops a framework with which to examine and assess development and adaptation interventions. The framework is then applied to eight interventions made between 2005 and 2011 in diverse socioecological settings across Africa. All interventions were underpinned by participatory action research methodologies. Our analysis shows how a focus on change agents, generalizability of field-scale adaptation mechanisms and pathways, and sustainability of outcomes, combined with attention to the scale and scope of change processes, provides information that can inform policy on the kinds of intervention that are likely to support long-term and sustainable responses to climate impacts. Although several of the cases mainly illustrate incremental adaptations, use of the analytical framework pointed towards the wider processes of systems change that might lead to transformative trajectories.
Newton et al. (2015) Community forest management and REDD+
Citation: Newton, Peter, Brian Schaap, Michelle Fournier, Meghan Cornwall, Derrick W. Rosenbach, Joel DeBoer, Jessica Whittemore, Ryan Stock, Mark Yoders, Gernot Brodnig, and Arun Agrawal. 2015. Community forest management and REDD+. Forest Policy and Economics 56: 27-37.
Abstract
The urgent need to limit anthropogenic carbon emissions has led to the global initiative on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD +). One option to facilitate the design and implementation of REDD + is to build on the experiences of community forest management (CFM). Despite tensions between the central objectives of REDD + and CFM, the two policy interventions share the objective of managing forests sustainably. REDD + projects can build on and benefit from the environmental, social, human, and institutional capital associated with existing community forest governance. Using a comparative case approach with studies from Nepal and Tanzania, we illustrate interactions between REDD + and CFM. In Nepal, most REDD + pilot projects have been located in community forest sites, especially in high-carbon forests. In Tanzania, REDD + funding is being used to expand the area of forest under Participatory Forest Management. Our study also highlights how community forestry institutions may need to be modified to satisfy key REDD + criteria. Greater institutional coordination, equitable benefit sharing mechanisms, and higher community capacity for monitoring, reporting, and verification are key areas needing change. There are significant risks, but the vast experience and significant successes of CFM can improve prospects for achieving REDD + objectives in other less-industrialized, forested countries.
Oldekop et al. (2015) 100 key research questions for the post-2015 development agenda
Citation: Oldekop, Johan A., Lorenza B. Fontana, Jean Grugel, Nicole Roughton, Emmanuel A. Adu-Ampong, Gemma K. Bird, Alex Dorgan, Marcia A. Vera Espinoza, Sara Wallin, Daniel Hammett, Esther Agbarakwe, Arun Agrawal, Nurgul Asylbekova, Clarissa Azkoul, Craig Bardsley, Anthony J. Bebbington, Savio Carvalho, Deepta Chopra, Stamatios Christopoulos, Emma Crewe, Marie-Claude Dop, Joern Fischer, Daan Gerretsen, Jonathan Glennie, William Gios, Mtinkheni Gondwe, Lizz A. Harrison, Katja Hujo, Mark Keen, Roberto Laserna, Luca Maggiano, Sarah Mistry, Rosemary J. Morgan, Linda L. Raftree, Duncan Rhind, Thiago Rodrigues, Sonia Roschnik, Flavia Senkubuge, Ian Thornton, Simon Trace, Teresa Ore, Rene M. Valdes, Bhaskar Vira, Nicola Yeates, and William J. Sutherland. 2015. 100 Key Research Questions for the Post-2015 Development Agenda. Development Policy Review 34(1): 55-82.
Abstract
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) herald a new phase for international development. This article presents the results of a consultative exercise to collaboratively identify 100 research questions of critical importance for the post-2015 international development agenda. The final shortlist is grouped into nine thematic areas and was selected by 21 representatives of international and non-governmental organisations and consultancies, and 14 academics with diverse disciplinary expertise from an initial pool of 704 questions submitted by 110 organisations based in 34 countries. The shortlist includes questions addressing long-standing problems, new challenges and broader issues related to development policies, practices and institutions. Collectively, these questions are relevant for future development-related research priorities of governmental and non-governmental organisations worldwide and could act as focal points for transdisciplinary research collaborations.
Oldekop et al. (2015) Linking Brazil’s food security policies to agricultural change
Citation: Oldekop JA, Chappell MJ, Borges Peixoto FE, Paglia, Schmoeller M, Evans KL. 2015. Linking Brazil’s food security policies to agricultural change. Food Security 7: 779-793.
Abstract
Poverty, food security, and sustainability are intimately intertwined, driving conflict and synergy between environmental and societal concerns. Brazil’s flagship food security policies were implemented over a decade ago to address these issues simultaneously. Global institutions have pledged over 2 million US$ to develop similar programs in sub-Saharan Africa, yet empirical assessments of many aspects of these policies are still lacking. We focus on a case study in the state of Minas Gerais and assess the agricultural and environmental impacts of the Purchase with Simultaneous Donation (PSD) program. The PSD provides stable markets as incentives to diversify production, but we find no effect of participation on changes in local agricultural practices, production or income. While some farms are expanding, regional agricultural production appears to be declining due to local economic development and related shortages in farm labor. The PSD’s limited impact arises because most farmers only participate irregularly, typically during the dry season when the program offers higher prices than the local market price. Furthermore, participation is constrained by the specific nature of PSD contracts and centralized governance of the program. We complement these findings with data from the Brazilian Ministry of Social Development and the 2006 agricultural census, which show substantial variation in the availability of PSD initiatives, and the funding allocated to them at local, regional and national levels. We suggest that adaptive management strategies that can respond to local market conditions could lead to more equitable and efficient food security and agricultural policies in Brazil and elsewhere.
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